economics
fatemeh karami; Mohammad Ali Asaadi; sadegh khalilian
Abstract
IntroductionIn today's world, women's participation and status are recognized as key indicators in assessing a country's level of development. A review of global trends reveals that the role of women in economic growth, social development, and the achievement of justice has received more attention than ...
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IntroductionIn today's world, women's participation and status are recognized as key indicators in assessing a country's level of development. A review of global trends reveals that the role of women in economic growth, social development, and the achievement of justice has received more attention than ever before. Women's empowerment, particularly in rural areas, not only enhances labor productivity but also plays a crucial role in promoting social justice and accelerating the process of sustainable development. Trade expansion serves as a key driver in empowering rural women and increasing their economic participation. In recent years, many developing countries have adopted trade liberalization policies to create new employment opportunities for women. However, in Iran, most research has focused on the impact of exports on overall employment, while the effects of trade liberalization on rural women's employment have received less attention. This study aims to fill this research gap by examining the impact of trade liberalization on rural women's employment and demonstrating how trade policies can influence the economic participation of this segment of society. Analyzing this issue can lead to the formulation of strategies that not only leverage the opportunities created by trade expansion but also mitigate its potential negative effects on rural women's employment.Methodology The use of the ARDL approach in this research allows for the examination of the effects of trade openness and rural population on the participation rate of rural women over different time periods, providing a more comprehensive understanding of the dynamics of these relationships. Based on the findings of previous studies (Voumik et al., 2023; Nica et al., 2023), the significant variables have been identified and incorporated into the research model. In this regard, the conceptual model of the research is expressed in the following equation:〖lEPW〗_t = f (L〖OP〗_t,〖LG〗_t,〖LPOP〗_t,〖LIN〗_t)In this model, the dependent variable is the economic participation rate of rural women, denoted as (〖lEPW〗_t), while the main independent variable is trade openness (L〖OP〗_t). Additionally, the variables for agricultural sector growth (〖LG〗_t), rural population (〖LPOP〗_t), and inflation (〖LIN〗_t) are also included in the function. The inclusion of these variables in the model is based on economic theoretical foundations, as changes in each of these factors are expected to influence the economic participation of women. This research utilizes time series data from the period 1999 to 2021, which has been collected from reputable sources, including the Statistical Center of Iran, the Central Bank, and the Customs Administration of the Islamic Republic of Iran. For the analyses, Microfit and Eviews software have been employed.Results and Discussion This study examines the stationarity of the research variables using the Augmented Dickey-Fuller unit root test. The results indicate that the rural population variable is stationary, while other variables such as the economic participation rate of women, trade openness, agricultural value added, and inflation rate are stationary at first difference. These differences suggest that the ARDL model is suitable for analyzing both long-term and short-term relationships. The findings indicate that trade openness has a positive and significant impact on the economic participation rate of rural women in the long term. The coefficient for this variable is estimated at 0.27, which is significant at the 90% confidence level. However, it does not have a significant impact in the short term. Additionally, agricultural sector growth positively and significantly affects this rate in both the long and short terms. In contrast, the rural population and inflation rate have a negative impact on the economic participation rate of women in both the short and long terms, although the effect of inflation is not statistically significant. In the short term, some variables have a significant impact on the economic participation rate of women, but trade openness does not show a considerable effect. The error correction coefficient indicates that 39% of the short-term imbalance in the economic participation rate of women is corrected. The results of diagnostic tests confirm the hypothesis of homoscedasticity and no serial correlation in the disturbance terms. Furthermore, the values of the LM and F statistics suggest that the functional form of the model is correctly specified and that the distribution of disturbance terms is normal. The CUSUM and CUSUMSQ tests indicate that the estimated coefficients remain stable throughout the period under investigation, and the model possesses the necessary structural stability.Conclusion and RecommendationsThe findings of the research indicate that, in the long term, an increase in trade openness has a positive and significant impact on the economic participation rate of rural women. This increase in trade can create new job opportunities in agriculture, handicrafts, and export-related services. Furthermore, with the expansion of consumer markets and the growing demand for products made by rural women, their position in economic activities is strengthened. Trade development also facilitates the growth of women's job skills and their entry into competitive markets through investments in infrastructure, technology, and education. Additionally, economic and demographic factors significantly affect the economic participation rate of rural women. The growth of the agricultural sector positively impacts women's employment, highlighting the importance of sustainable agricultural development. Conversely, the rural population negatively affects women's participation, which may be due to competition in the labor market and traditional gender role patterns. Moreover, inflation rates have a negative effect on women's economic participation, although this impact is not statistically significant. In the short term, trade openness does not have a significant effect on women's participation, likely due to the time required for economic and social structures to adapt to trade developments and the need to enhance women's skills and capabilities. Based on the research findings, policymakers can create opportunities for rural women to benefit from trade by implementing supportive measures and structural reforms. These measures include increasing investment in vocational training, establishing financial funds specifically for women entrepreneurs, developing transportation and communication infrastructure, and forming cooperative networks. Additionally, designing trade policies with gender considerations and supporting local supply chains that involve women can help mitigate the negative consequences of global competition. Developing export markets for products produced by rural women and facilitating trade processes are also strategies that can strengthen their economic participation.
Entrepreneurship
Zahra Eskandari; Rasoul Abbasi; Mohammad Reza Fallah
Abstract
IntroductionHome-based businesses not only play a significant role in a country’s gross domestic product but also create a link between domestic space and economic activity. These businesses can be particularly important for women, especially female heads of households in developing countries, ...
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IntroductionHome-based businesses not only play a significant role in a country’s gross domestic product but also create a link between domestic space and economic activity. These businesses can be particularly important for women, especially female heads of households in developing countries, as they serve as a crucial tool for empowerment and economic independence. Female-headed households, due to specific circumstances such as the loss of a spouse, cultural biases, and financial difficulties, have turned to home-based businesses. These businesses can serve as a tool for empowering these women and reducing the poverty of vulnerable households. Women in home-based businesses, especially those who are heads of households, face numerous limitations and challenges. Investigating their experiences in entering the entrepreneurial domain and starting a home-based business can provide valuable guidelines for government officials in smoothing the path and supporting entrepreneurship for this particular group of women. Previous research has addressed the issue of female-headed households and their limitations; however, the lived experiences of female heads of households in starting a home-based business have not been explored. Therefore, given the lack of prior research on the experiences of entrepreneurial female heads of households, this study aims to examine the lived experiences of female heads of households in establishing and managing home-based businesses in Iran.MethodologyThis research employed a qualitative phenomenological approach to explore the lived experiences of female-headed households in establishing and developing home-based businesses. The primary aim was to identify these women's experiences in order to provide valuable information for policymakers and legislators. In this study, 19 semi-structured interviews were conducted with entrepreneurial women who have been running home-based businesses for at least three years. Purposeful sampling was used, and data collection continued until data saturation was reached. The interview questions focused on social, cultural, and gender-related barriers to starting a business, resource acquisition, and challenges in product sales. Data analysis was conducted using Colaizzi’s descriptive phenomenological method. Initially, the data was analyzed through coding and the extraction of key concepts. Then, the meanings were organized into categories to identify core concepts. The reliability of the analysis was assessed through inter-coder reliability, with a 92% agreement rate between two coders. Moreover, the validity of the results was confirmed through participant feedback. Overall, this research addresses the challenges and factors influencing the success of home-based businesses run by female-headed households and provides an appropriate tool for better understanding this phenomenon.FindingsThe findings indicate that participants’ experiences can be classified into three main categories: prerequisites for home-based businesses, proficiency in sales management, and challenges faced by female-headed households. A. Prerequisites for home-based businessesFemale heads of households cited several reasons for choosing home-based businesses, including spousal loss, financial responsibilities, and cultural restrictions discouraging women from working outside the home. Additional considerations such as preserving personal dignity, overcoming societal stigmas, and balancing professional and familial responsibilities also influenced their decisions. Unique circumstances such as previous legal issues, imprisonment, or limited education further motivated them toward entrepreneurship. These women acquired the necessary skills through various avenues, including family mentorship, expert training, vocational programs, and self-guided learning via online platforms. Charitable organizations and hands-on experience also contributed to their skill development. Additionally, technology adoption—such as using YouTube for education, social media for marketing, and design software for innovation—enhanced their business success.B. Proficiency in sales managementEntrepreneurial women employed diverse strategies to market and sell their products, including word-of-mouth referrals, social media advertising, and traditional print promotions. Initially, their sales were limited to acquaintances, but over time, they expanded their customer base to include strangers and institutional buyers. Many leveraged online sales platforms and participated in local events and markets to boost their visibility. Some adopted intermediary-based sales strategies or established direct contracts with institutions such as schools and production workshops, allowing them to increase market reach and achieve financial stability.C. Challenges faced by female-headed householdsDespite their determination, female heads of households face substantial individual and environmental challenges. Personal difficulties include limited knowledge of digital technologies, the lack of permanent product display spaces, and physically demanding work with low financial returns. Early-stage losses, low customer engagement, and isolation also hinder progress. Moreover, securing loans remains difficult due to the absence of guarantors and inadequate legal and marketing knowledge. At an environmental level, bureaucratic loan approval processes, competition with cheap imports, shortages of raw materials, and the lack of insurance or trade unions significantly obstruct business growth. Gender-based discrimination, including skepticism regarding women’s capabilities and demands for financial guarantees, further complicates their entrepreneurial journey. Nevertheless, these women demonstrate resilience and creativity, utilizing their resourcefulness to navigate obstacles and progress in their businesses.ConclusionHome-based businesses not only create job opportunities for female-headed households but also play a crucial role in reducing poverty and improving the quality of life for vulnerable families. This study highlights the transformative potential of such businesses in enabling women to achieve financial independence while fulfilling their familial responsibilities. Despite the positive outcomes, significant barriers persist. Gender biases and cultural prejudices remain major impediments, emphasizing the need for systemic changes in societal attitudes and structural frameworks. To ensure the growth and sustainability of home-based businesses, institutional and governmental support is imperative. This includes providing low-interest or collateral-free loans, offering vocational training, and establishing robust support systems such as unions and insurance schemes. Policy measures should also focus on addressing cultural norms and creating awareness to foster an inclusive environment that empowers women. Furthermore, practical steps such as organizing regular markets, enabling access to technology, and providing financial incentives are essential to help these entrepreneurs thrive. In conclusion, home-based businesses represent a viable solution for alleviating poverty, promoting economic empowerment, and challenging traditional gender roles in society. Strategic planning and targeted policy interventions can not only improve the living conditions of female-headed households but also contribute to the broader goals of sustainable economic and social development. This study offers valuable insights and a foundation for future research on the role of social capital, technology, and institutional support in enhancing the outcomes of home-based businesses. To address the limitations of this study, it is recommended that future research include broader and more diverse samples from various cultural backgrounds. Additionally, to enhance the reliability of the data, it is suggested that the findings of this study be tested quantitatively on a larger statistical population.
Women's Studies
bahar atashkar; Ehsan Aqababaee; hamidreza shairi; Taghi Azadarmaki
Abstract
Extended AbstractIntroductionNewspapers, as pivotal instruments of discourse, played a key role in shaping and representing ideological values, as well as in transmitting sociopolitical messages. The representation of women in newspapers not only reflects social and cultural transformations but also ...
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Extended AbstractIntroductionNewspapers, as pivotal instruments of discourse, played a key role in shaping and representing ideological values, as well as in transmitting sociopolitical messages. The representation of women in newspapers not only reflects social and cultural transformations but also serves as a mirror to the structures of power, cultural norms, and prevailing discourses. In this regard, the central inquiry of the present study focused on how women were portrayed in newspapers during the 1980s. It also sought to explore the messages conveyed by these representations regarding women’s roles and sociopolitical status. Therefore, this study, drawing on Foucault’s discourse theory and the social semiotic framework of Kress and Van Leeuwen, examines the representation of women in the 1980s Iranian newspapers, focusing on their social, political, and familial roles, in order to uncover the discursive messages embedded within these images. Many studies have investigated the representation of women in the media, employing both Foucault’s discourse theory and social semiotics as analytical frameworks. Their results suggest that the media can play a major role in the reproduction of gender norms, with images serving as instruments of social control. This study focuses on the 1980s newspapers, with particular attention to the influence of revolutionary and Islamic ideologies on the representation of women, and presents a novel approach to the analysis of visual representations.MethodologyThis qualitative research was grounded in the social semiotic framework of Kress and Van Leeuwen, analyzing the images through three distinct dimensions: representational, interactive, and compositional.. The research sample included 431 images of women published in the front pages of widely circulated Persian-language newspapers during the 1980s in Iran. From this collection, 15 images were purposefully selected for a detailed analysis. The inclusion criteria were based on the presence of women in the images, their alignment with dominant discourses, and the representation of their social, familial, and political roles within the sociopolitical context of the 1980s. Images deemed irrelevant, e.g., those featuring non-Iranian women or those portraying women in a full-face view without additional contexts, were excluded from the analysis. At the representational level, the study focused on how individuals and their roles were portrayed. At the interactive level, the analysis examined the relationship between the audience and the images, considering different factors such as viewpoint, distance, and gaze. At the compositional level, the research explored the visual arrangement of the images and the discursive messages they conveyed. Foucault`s discourse theory was employed for the discourse analysis, facilitating a deeper understanding of the discursive and ideological dynamics at play. To enhance the validity of the research, feedback was sought from scholars specializing in linguistics, women’s studies, and sociology.Findings At the representational level, women were depicted as active participants in social, political, and revolutionary spheres, engaging in protests, revolutionary rallies, and elections, supporting efforts on the front lines during the Iran–Iraq war, and providing aid during natural disasters. These images highlighted women’s participation in sociopolitical transformations, their role in resistance, and the construction of a revolutionary female identity. At the interactive level, the analyzed images established a dynamic interaction between the audience and the depicted subjects. The social distance depicted in the collective images, especially those representing protests, accentuated the sense of mass mobilization and active participation of the population. In terms of spatial distance, long-shot images primarily conveyed a sense of observation, employed to depict collective events. In contrast, close-up images fostered a sense of intimacy and empathy. The use of an indirect gaze in the documentary images emphasized the focus on the activity and event, rather than establishing a direct connection with the audience. However, certain images where the subjects gazed directly at the audience aligned the viewer with the discourse message, invited engagement, and fostered a sense of empathy with the women depicted. Images in which the subject’s gaze directly engaged with the audience fostered a greater sense of interaction. Such images were predominantly employed to represent specific themes such as the supportive role of women during the Iran–Iraq war and the Islamic Revolution. The visual compositions and their ideological messages were intentionally structured to convey specific ideological messages. Images depicting women in social and occupational roles were typically paired with dynamic and intricate compositions, whereas the representations of women in familial and traditional roles were presented with more simplistic compositions. The portrayal of women adhering to the Islamic dress code, along with their familial and revolutionary activities, underscored the reinforcement of Islamic and revolutionary discourses, as well as religious values. The composition of the images, characterized by simplicity and the strategic use of visual elements such as open social spaces, dividing lines, the Islamic hijab, and specific lighting accentuated ideological messages that supported Islamic and revolutionary discourses. The representation of women in the 1980s Iran was shaped by three predominant discourses: the revolutionary discourse, which highlighted the revolutionary identity of women through their participation in the Iran–Iraq war and support for the revolution; the religious discourse, which emphasized the familial and maternal roles of women within the framework of Islamic teachings; and the traditional discourse, which emphasized family-oriented values, traditional roles, and the social constraints placed on women.Conclusion The depiction of women in the front pages of newspapers during the 1980s reflects the sociocultural regulation and ideological dominance of prevailing discourses concerning women’s roles and identities. The newspapers of that period, despite the meticulous regulation of visual content and the deliberate exclusion of imagery inconsistent with prevailing discourses, actively constructed women’s roles and identities within the ideological framework of revolutionary and religious values. Women were conceptualized as the emblematic figures of resistance, embodying familial and Islamic values. These depictions were confined within the ideological boundaries of revolutionary, religious, and traditional paradigms. Visual semiotics, e.g., adherence to Islamic dress codes, simplistic compositional elements, and representations of familial roles, functioned as mediums for articulating the Revolutionary- Islamic identity of women. At the representational level, women were predominantly depicted within the confines of traditional or revolutionary roles. At the interactive level, the images sought to foster a sense of empathy and establish an emotional rapport with the audience. However, at the compositional level, visual semiotic elements and structures were strategically employed to articulate and transmit discursive messages. Moreover, the visual composition of the images was structured in a manner that constrained women’s roles within specific social and cultural frameworks. The findings of this study align with those of prior research, demonstrating that the media can play a pivotal role in the reproduction of gender norms and the perpetuation of hegemonic discourses. This study drew upon Foucault’s discourse theory alongside the social semiotic framework, presenting a novel methodological approach to analyzing the representation of women in Iranian media. The application of Foucault`s discourse theory coupled with the social semiotic approach of Kress and Van Leeuwen facilitated an in-depth analysis of power dynamics and the representation of women within the context of prevailing discourses. To attain a more nuanced understanding of the representation of women in the media, future studies should adopt a comparative approach, facilitating a deeper exploration of the influence of diverse discourses on women’s roles and identities and identifying both analogous and divergent models.
Sociology
fatemeh danafar; Feze Abolhasani; Nilofar shojaei
Abstract
IntroductionThe increasing incarceration of women across the globe has prompted a significant shift in how criminologists, sociologists, and policymakers conceptualize female criminality. Although women comprise less than 15% of the incarcerated population worldwide, the number of female prisoners has ...
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IntroductionThe increasing incarceration of women across the globe has prompted a significant shift in how criminologists, sociologists, and policymakers conceptualize female criminality. Although women comprise less than 15% of the incarcerated population worldwide, the number of female prisoners has increased disproportionately compared to men—rising by more than 50% since the year 2000. This phenomenon is particularly alarming in contexts where traditional gender norms and familial expectations dominate, and where women’s deviation from prescribed social roles is met with intensified social sanctions. Imprisonment, for women, often entails more than legal punishment—it entails moral condemnation, social ostracism, identity erosion, and the disruption of key roles such as motherhood and caregiving.This study focuses on the lived experiences of incarcerated women in Yazd, a culturally conservative city in central Iran. In such settings, women’s imprisonment is not merely a legal issue but a profound violation of social expectations, leading to deeper forms of stigma and exclusion. The study aims to explore, through a grounded theory approach, the processes through which these women enter into crime, the structural and emotional forces that perpetuate their criminal behavior, and the strategies they adopt to survive and make sense of their experiences. By doing so, the study attempts to bridge the gap between theory and the actual voices of women affected by incarceration.MethodologyThe research employed a qualitative method based on the systematic grounded theory framework proposed by Strauss and Corbin. The study was conducted in the female ward of the central prison in Yazd. Twenty-one women inmates were selected based on purposive and theoretical sampling, ensuring diversity in age (ranging from 19 to 65), educational background, marital status, number of children, and the type of crime committed (mostly drug-related offenses, document forgery, and financial fraud).Data collection was carried out using semi-structured and in-depth interviews, conducted within the prison premises. Due to security regulations, audio recordings were not allowed. Instead, the researcher transcribed interviews in real-time and later expanded them into full texts. The interview questions were open-ended and designed to elicit deep reflection on life before and after incarceration, the causes of crime, emotional and social consequences, and personal coping mechanisms.Data analysis followed the three-step coding process typical of grounded theory:Open coding – breaking down raw data into discrete concepts and categories;Axial coding – identifying relationships among categories and subcategories;Selective coding – developing a core category that integrates all themes.To ensure trustworthiness, three validation techniques were used: (1) participant validation through feedback on interview summaries; (2) comparison of emerging codes with raw transcripts to verify consistency; and (3) peer review of coding with a research colleague to ensure intercoder reliability.The research followed strict ethical protocols: informed consent was obtained from all participants; anonymity was maintained through pseudonyms; and the right to withdraw at any time was guaranteed. The interviews were held in a private space within the prison, and special care was taken to create a respectful, nonjudgmental environment.FindingsThe central phenomenon that emerged from the analysis was the concept of “living in the cycle of structural deviance.” This refers to a recurrent pattern of exclusion, marginalization, and criminalization that the women experienced both before and after incarceration. Their narratives revealed a complex interaction of causal, contextual, and intervening factors:Causal factors included exposure to deviant subcultures, growing up in criminalized families, and experiencing emotional crises such as domestic violence, childhood neglect, or betrayal by partners. Many of the women had limited or no control over their life choices, often coerced or manipulated into illegal activities by male relatives or partners.Contextual factors revolved around emotional vulnerability, impulsive decisions, and lack of skills or education. Women frequently reported committing crimes such as drug transportation or taking legal blame to protect a loved one—acts rooted in emotional entanglement rather than criminal intent.Intervening conditions included economic hardship, social stigma, gender-based educational deprivation, and cultural restrictions. These factors collectively reinforced women's exclusion from legal economic opportunities, pushing them toward survival-based illegality.The consequences of these experiences were articulated in three key categories:Defensive isolation – a conscious decision to retreat from social interactions to avoid humiliation, gossip, and stigma.Psychological erosion – chronic mental health problems including depression, anxiety, hopelessness, and self-harm tendencies.Suspended identity – the feeling of being stuck between one's past self and a socially rejected label as an “ex-convict.” Many women concealed their imprisonment even from family members.In response, the women employed a set of survival strategies that helped them cope:Identity reconstruction: seeking to redefine themselves through behavioral change, community engagement, or reframing of personal narratives.Spiritual renewal: engaging in religious rituals, prayer, and trust in divine justice as a source of psychological stability.Emotional purification: using crying, storytelling, and expressions of pain to release internal tensions, often in group or therapeutic settings within the prison.This culminated in a paradigmatic model illustrating how structural deviance is produced and reproduced in the lives of marginalized women. The model shows that crime is not a simple individual act but a consequence of multiple layers of disadvantage and trauma, compounded by punitive social reactions.ConclusionThis research highlights that female criminality, particularly in conservative contexts like Yazd, is best understood as a socially constructed outcome of structural inequality, emotional deprivation, and systemic exclusion. The findings align with established theories:Hirschi’s Social Bond Theory explains the weak attachment of these women to conventional social institutions like school or family.Cloward and Ohlin’s Differential Opportunity Theory shows how lack of access to legitimate means of advancement pushes individuals toward illegitimate alternatives.Goffman’s Stigma Theory helps explain how being labeled a criminal reinforces exclusion and inhibits reentry into normal social life.This study complements global literature that portrays incarcerated women not primarily as criminals, but as victims of intersecting vulnerabilities: poverty, gender oppression, broken families, and systemic neglect. Consistent with studies by Bright et al. (2023), Bucerius & Sandberg (2022), Parry (2021), and Gueta & Chen (2016), the participants' experiences reflect how crime becomes an almost inevitable route for survival when no other options exist.To address these issues, the study recommends:Creating holistic rehabilitation programs focused on trauma recovery, parenting, vocational skills, and emotional health;Promoting community-based alternatives to incarceration for non-violent female offenders;Supporting post-release reentry services including housing, job placement, and legal aid;Implementing anti-stigma public education campaigns to enable social reintegration;Reforming sentencing laws to incorporate restorative justice principles and gender sensitivity.Ultimately, the lived experiences of incarcerated women in Yazd point toward a broader need for structural transformation in how societies respond to female deviance. Instead of punitive exclusion, the focus must shift to restorative inclusion, enabling these women to rebuild their lives with dignity and autonomy.
