economics
saadolah darabi; Hossein Mahmoudian
Abstract
The purpose of this research is to analyze of unemployment duration and compare it among Iranian men and women in the period of 2012-2018. In this study, an attempt has been made to investigate the effect of four variables of gender and age, education level, and marital status of unemployment duration ...
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The purpose of this research is to analyze of unemployment duration and compare it among Iranian men and women in the period of 2012-2018. In this study, an attempt has been made to investigate the effect of four variables of gender and age, education level, and marital status of unemployment duration of job seekers aged 20 to 45 referring to employment centers across the country. This study has been carried out with the help of the statistical technique of survival background analysis, through the refinement and analysis of about two million data records (collected by job seekers across the country and under the supervision of the Ministry of Cooperation, Labor and Social Welfare). The findings of this study indicate that compared to men, women have longer periods of unemployment and less chance to get a job. In explaining this finding, it can be said; Probably, one of the reasons could be that there are more jobs for men that do not suit the conditions of women. And in other words, women are facing limited job variety. Marriage and having children and raising children by women can also be one of the reasons for increasing the length of their unemployment period compared to men, which can be justified according to gender theories. Because gender theories, especially in Iranian culture, consider the main duties of women to be mainly education and upbringing of children, while in this culture, providing the income needed by the family has been the responsibility of men, and therefore it is expected to impose such a duty on men. to reduce the period of unemployment for this group.Women and men looking for work in the age groups of 20 to 24 years have a lower average length of unemployment and more chances to get a job and get out of unemployment compared to other age groups. This finding can be explained with the help of job search theory. Because people aged 25 to 45, probably due to the improvement of their education level and skills, have more expectations for receiving high-paying jobs, and this causes them not to accept any job with any level of pay and therefore give up. They search for more jobs, which ultimately increases the length of the unemployment period among these people. Married, divorced and widowed job seekers (except for divorced and widowed men) have a lower risk of unemployment than single people. It seems that married, divorced and widowed people (especially among women) are under more pressure than single people to get a job in order to earn money and meet the needs of the family due to family responsibility and the burden of taking care of the family. They usually accept any job with any salary level. On the other hand, single people, due to having enough opportunity and without financial pressures, decide to accept or not accept the proposed job, and this may lead to an increase in the length of their unemployment period compared to married people. It is consistent with job search theory.In both groups of men and women, uneducated job seekers have the highest unemployment risk and people with a master's degree and doctorate are in the second highest unemployment risk category. The chances of leaving unemployment are higher for people with secondary, diploma, pre-university and seminary education levels compared to other education levels. This finding can be explained based on the skill theory (education and training). According to this theory, training and skill training programs increase the chances of a job seeker to find a job. Participating in training programs can provide a positive sign to employers and also reduce uncertainty about the employability of job applicants. According to other findings of this study, people with a master's degree and doctorate are in the second highest risk of unemployment. have. On the other hand, the chance of leaving unemployment is higher for people with secondary, diploma, pre-university and seminary education levels compared to other education levels, so it seems that Iran's labor market has not yet reached a stage of complexity and maturity. which wants people with education levels higher than diploma on a wide level. And almost the skill requirement of the labor market has remained at the same diploma and sub-diploma levels for most jobs, due to the lack of innovation and the very slow growth of skill-oriented jobs.Therefore, it is suggested to pay serious attention to the changes in the age and gender structure of the population in the policy making and management process of the country's labor market. Women are half of the country's population,t
mahdi filsaraei
Abstract
This paper investigates the impact of board gender diversity on a firm’s investment inefficiency. We document that firms with gender-diverse boards have significantly less investment inefficiency than firms without gender-diverse board and the fraction of female directors on the board is significantly ...
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This paper investigates the impact of board gender diversity on a firm’s investment inefficiency. We document that firms with gender-diverse boards have significantly less investment inefficiency than firms without gender-diverse board and the fraction of female directors on the board is significantly negative correlated with investment inefficiency. According to the analysis of past information, this research is a quasi-experimental type of research. Also, due to the fact that the results obtained from the research solve a specific problem or issue, in terms of practical purpose and in terms of method, it is of the type of correlation analysis with regression approach. Due to the fact that this research uses past information to test hypotheses, it is a type of post-event research. In terms of theory, the research is of the affirmative research type and in terms of reasoning, it is of the inductive type. On the other hand, this research is a type of quasi-experimental research in the field of financial and accounting research. In terms of the hypothesis testing model, the current research is considered one of the correlational researches (type of correlational research). The research data is also a type of composite data. The relationship between the independent and dependent variables of the research is investigated using the multivariate linear regression model.In order to that, the research hypothesis was based on a statistical sample consisting of 108 companies during the years 2017 to2021 and tested using multivariate regression models. The analysis of the research sample shows that there is a significant negative relationship between the gender diversity of the board of directors and investment inefficiency. The results also showed that board independence moderates the relationship between board gender diversity and investment inefficiency. But the CEO's tenure does not moderate the relationship between the gender diversity of the board and investment inefficiency. Research results show that gender diversity of the board of directors helps monitoring, especially when corporate governance is weak. Some researchers have found that women are more risk-taking and conservative in making investment decisions. Female directors are more likely to join supervisory committees, and boards with higher proportions of female directors use more equity-based compensation for their directors. In summary, the results show that the gender diversity of the supervisory board increases and reduces investment inefficiency. The presence of a female manager at the head of the organization as a managing director or as a member of the company's board of directors can have positive effects on improving the performance with more supervision from the female manager according to their personality characteristics and also improving the quality of providing financial reports, increasing the company's efficiency and increase productivity. Men and women, exposed to different moral development, tend to develop different values, which leads to different attitudes and behaviors. For example, men attribute value to money, progress, and power, while women are more concerned with social relationships and are interested in performing assigned tasks more effectively and are more likely to obey rules. In addition, compared to boards where all directors are men, women can present different views in the board of directors and make more informed decisions, leading to increased transparency at the level of the board of directors.
Women's Studies
Amir Asgari; Sahebeh Masoudi; Maedeh Taghizadeh Tabarsi
Abstract
Women's empowerment is a topic included in a wide range of programs and policies implemented by different institutions around the world. However, cognitive characteristics and research in the field of cognitive sciences, specifically regarding cognitive abilities, have been neglected in many of these ...
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Women's empowerment is a topic included in a wide range of programs and policies implemented by different institutions around the world. However, cognitive characteristics and research in the field of cognitive sciences, specifically regarding cognitive abilities, have been neglected in many of these policies and implemented projects. Empowering women and promoting gender equality are recognized as important factors for achieving sustainable development and reducing poverty around the world. Despite significant progress over the years, gender inequality still exists in various areas of life, including education, employment, health, and political activities. In order to solve these inequalities, it is important to understand the effective factors in their occurrence and provide solutions for them. One of the research areas that has attracted a lot of attention in this field, especially in recent years, is called cognitive science. Recent research has shown that cognitive science, through examining the mechanisms of the formation of mental concepts, and by combining it with behaviorism through the simultaneous examination of the mind, language, social behavior, and social technical systems, not only provides a clearer understanding of the way humans encounter various phenomena, but also makes available ways to analyze and improve them in different contexts.In this regard, this research provides a framework for empowering women in governance based on cognitive science studies using a two-step method that involves scoping review and content analysis. The results of this research, including 18 key elements of women's empowerment based on cognitive studies, along with the presented conceptual framework, aid experts, researchers, and individuals interested in the fields of empowerment, governance, and women in reaching their answers for policy-making and decision-making processes. The achievements also help to build networks among various related concepts for designing further applied research. One of the key benefits of the research presented in this study is that it emphasizes the importance of incorporating cognitive science research into policy-making and decision-making processes for women's empowerment. By understanding the cognitive mechanisms that underlie gender inequality, policymakers and experts can design more effective interventions and programs that address the root causes of these inequalities. This can lead to more sustainable and long-term solutions that not only benefit women but also promote overall economic and social development. Furthermore, by integrating cognitive science research into governance studies, it is possible to establish a more comprehensive understanding of the complex interplay between individual cognition and social behavior. This interdisciplinary approach can facilitate the development of more nuanced and sophisticated policies and programs that take into account the diverse contexts and experiences of women across different cultures and societies. Overall, this research highlights the immense potential of cognitive science research for achieving greater gender equality and empowering women around the world.The current research is also important in creating schemas of applied research with the aim of creating a connection between different fields of governance studies and cognitive science studies. It can open up conceptual gaps as well as paths for further studies for those interested in interdisciplinary studies, providing a wide range of topics and concepts
Women's Studies
Maryam Ahmadinejad; elahe Marandi
Abstract
Detailed abstractAims: today Prevalence of homosexuality as an unconventional sexual orientation the human world has faced a serious threat to the foundation of the family. This unnatural problem, has been breaking the taboo internationally in recent years. Despite the strict view and prohibitions of ...
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Detailed abstractAims: today Prevalence of homosexuality as an unconventional sexual orientation the human world has faced a serious threat to the foundation of the family. This unnatural problem, has been breaking the taboo internationally in recent years. Despite the strict view and prohibitions of homosexuality in religions, especially within the context of Islam. In the field of international law we are witnessing that various international human rights bodies especially the European Court of Human Rights in their case law are against any discrimination against the civil institutions of homosexuals compared to the sacred institution of the family. While homosexuality threatens morality, health and the human race.Methodology: In order to answer the questions, the present research based on a descriptive-analytical research, with a legal approach, he searched for the Islamic point of view about this serious deviation from many authentic Shiite books and sources. Then the case law and documents on the international human rights was considered. Due to The multiplicity of existing procedures in this regard in the cases of the European Court of Human Rights, emphasized the judgments of this international judicial body; and finally, the domestic laws of several countries were presented as an example to better explain the issue.Findings: In several verses of the Holy Quran, committing homosexuality was introduced as prostitution and depravity that cuts off the pure human being race. Repeated repetition of this story in the Holy Quran shows the importance of the topics mentioned in these verses. Because such behaviors, in addition to not legitimizing, are also against the nature of the creation of the two sexes. According to the words of Shiite Imams, Some homosexual acts (Lovat) is more prohibited from illegitimate natural relationships (Adultery) and it is remembered as a disbelief. Committing to homosexuality in the practice of Lot's people became an epidemic tendency and to the testimony of the Holy Quran until then was unprecedented. Homosexuals tried to make others look like and if they fail to create such deviation in them, they punish them. Therefore, it should be emphasized that this inaccurate tendency when formed, it is crime that attacks forward and It is no restrictions for itself.In addition, based on the hadiths quoted, one of the natural consequences of homosexuality is that A person's sexuality changed. So that loses the tendency to the opposite sex and this is quite evident in the practice of homosexuals in the past and today. When Lot calls his people to marriage whit women, they declared the reluctance of the opposite sex. This can be considered one of the penalties that naturally happen to the perpetrators of these acts and their instinctual desire becomes an abnormal desire. However, unfortunately, today we see that some international institutions have also approved and identified homosexuality. From the identification of civil partnerships based on homosexuality until breaking the taboo of these historical crimes and deleting the criminalization that existed in most societies towards these actions Both in custom and in law; Until establishing the sacred institution of marriage for this relationship that is illegitimate and against creation; Insisting on prohibiting discrimination and granting equal rights to the family in its usual, historical and correct sense, with the fake family recognized for two same-sex couples. In the fields related to inheritance and the laws related to having children and granting adoption, etc., it is an example of the limitless attack of the supporters of homosexuality on the foundation of the family. International human rights bodies insist on the Gender equality towards homosexuality. This is despite the fact that at the time of the approval of many of these documents and conventions that mention to gender equality, homosexuality was illegal in most of the negotiating countries and was even considered a crime in many of those countries. It can be safely claimed that at the time of approval of these documents, the will of the approvers was not to expand the inclusion of this term to homosexuality. Finally, what is worth considering is the great taboo breaking that is being systematically done by some international bodies and especially the European Court of Human Rights through encouraging or pushing for the Criminalization of hate crime against homosexuality. So that this criminalization has been done in the domestic laws of some countries with secularist foundations.In the meantime, there are still many countries around the world and even in the European continent that define the family as a union consisting of one woman and one man and have not recognized homosexuality. Beyond that, at the global level, many countries have criminalized homosexuality in their domestic laws and have prescribed different punishments such as imprisonment, flogging and death penalty and they insistently stand against this anti-family perspective. Even many countries that have legalized the institution of marriage for homosexuals in their laws, have criminalized such acts in their historical practice.Conclusion: The precession of homosexuality supporters in recent years is worrying. Such viewpoints, following the creation of new standards in the field of family, have been able to provide plural rights for homosexuals in different societies. When it is added to this concern that the procedure of some international bodies is also coordinated with these opinions and is seeking to put pressure on the countries to recognize this historical slip. As the viewpoints based on homosexuality, throughout history and from the very beginning in the case of Lot's people, they did not set a limit for themselves and they always tried to bring others along with them. From breaking the taboo to decriminalizing and then legalizing same-sex marriage and granting various rights, especially redefining "gender equality" to provide equality for homosexuals and granting the right to prohibit discrimination to them, to forcing countries to criminalize the crime of hatred towards homosexuality; all of them indicate this fact that non-confrontation whit this thinking will lead to the destruction of the traditional and legitimate concept of the family. According to this in the near future, we will see more pressure being exerted through international organizations defending human rights on countries where the family in its eternal and historical sense, is the fundamental institution of their society. This is despite the fact that the future conflict over the issue of the "family" for countries whose intellectual basis is based on Islamic doctrines, will not be tolerated in any way. Because in the Islamic religious Forming a family and marriage is a sacred institution that is performed only through a legal marriage between a man and a woman. Moreover the punishments intended for homosexuals are among the most severe punishments specified by the religious lawgiver for the cases of shameful deeds among the Islamic punishments. Therefore, Islam has not only left no way to accept this kind of tendencies, but has also considered the most severe punishments for it and says: "come not nigh to shameful deeds"
Sociology
omid ghaderzadeh; Freshte khairandish
Abstract
IntroductionDespite social and cultural changes in Iranian society, patriarchy still has a hegemonic position and is reproduced through gendered institutions, including the family.in Iranian Kurdistan, the family, as a social institution and one of the main sources of socialization, has significant sanctity ...
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IntroductionDespite social and cultural changes in Iranian society, patriarchy still has a hegemonic position and is reproduced through gendered institutions, including the family.in Iranian Kurdistan, the family, as a social institution and one of the main sources of socialization, has significant sanctity and importance and has played a unique role in the construction of gender identity.gender identification in the context of the family has been associated with the subjugation of women. Recent studies have shown the continuation of subjugation and inferiority of Kurdish women (Ghaderzadeh & Hosseini, 2017; Ghaderzadeh & Khalghi, 2017; Ghaderzadeh & Abdollahzade, 2022; Rostampour, 2013; Shahriari, 2014).gender socialization is one of the conceptual and theoretical constructs that lead the way in understanding patriarchy and women's inferiority. Socialization is a process through which people find gender identity. They learn what is expected of them because of being a woman or a man and how to express these characteristics. Due to the fact that most sociologists believe that gender differences have a social origin, understanding gender socialization is important for analyzing the status of women (Wharton, 2012:56).understanding the dimensions and institutional sources of gender socialization and revealing it,s vulnerable strains is the precursor to redefining the social status of women in different fields of society.the practical importance of addressing the issue of gender socialization in the context of Kurdistan society becomes more relevant when women are abused openly and covertly in various fields.honor killings and murder by father or husband, the daily representation of news related to the assault of women on social networks and it,s increasing growth indicate asymmetric relationships and the weakness of dialogical and emotional democracy in the context of the family.based on field evidence, the city of Sanandaj is facing significant examples of gender inequality and gender violence. Therefore, the main question of the current research is, according to women's narratives, how does gender socialization take place in Sanandji families? And what are the sources and agents of gender socialization?MethodologyUnderstanding gender socialization in the context of the family requires studying the real life situation; Therefore, qualitative methodology has been adopted and among the qualitative methods, thematic analysis has been chosen as a method and strategy of data analysis to understand women's narrative of gender socialization.due to the events faced by women in childhood and adulthood and after marriage, the field of study is focused on a sample of married and working women in Sanandaj. By narrating the details of their lives and the events that happened in their lives and those of others, women provide rich data based on which gender socialization can be understood .on the other hand, due to the background nature of gender socialization and influence of ethnicity, the field of study is limited to Kurdish women of Sanandji.the sampling of the present study was a combination of targeted sampling and sampling with maximum diversity. In this study, theoretical saturation was achieved after conducting 30 interviews. In this study, after collecting data through semi-structured interviews, data was analyzed and interpreted using the thematic analysis approach.ResultsOne of the dimensions of gender socialization is gender roles. to understand the gender roles, the participants were asked what they do as women at home? Why do men refuse to do the things that women do? by analyzing the themes, we found 4 main themes: “identification with home,” “instrumental roles,” “patriarchal order of care,” and “glass ceiling and the difficulty of promotion of working women”.the interviewed women defined themselves by housework and the home environment, and since childhood, girls' cooperation and companionship in housework has been expected.most of the women admitted to asking men's permission in various matters, and men's ignorance of their work or leaving the house without men's permission has been associated with men's annoyance and anger.restrictions in the field of interactions and not being allowed to travel with friends or travel without family were among the common experiences of the interviewed participants.women believed that there is not much difference between housekeeping and employment in offices and institutions, and in both areas, the position of women is not recognized, and women's ideas are confiscated by men, and women's activities are hindered by men.after “gender roles”, another construct that helps to understand gender socialization is “gender stereotypes” which are resistant to change.gender stereotypes are closely related to social roles and perpetuate gender inequalities by legitimizing gender norms and identity.regarding the gender stereotypes related to the presence of women in public spaces, we found two main themes: “genderization of public spaces” and “insecurity in public spaces and blaming women”.one of the central topics in the current research was understanding the personality dimensions of women. Based on the understanding of women, the two main themes of “expressive identity” and “genderization of work and education” have formed gender stereotypes related to women's personality.among the other topics investigated were gender stereotypes in the field of family planning and management, based on women's narratives, two main themes were reached: “risklessness and dependent decision-making” and “gender separation of family planning and management”.in order to understand the gender stereotypes related to choosing a spouse and marital relations, interviews were conducted with women regarding topics such as the process of marriage and choosing a spouse for children, having children, and marital relations. From the analysis of the themes, 3 main themes were obtained: “urgency and strictness in the marriage of girls”, “woman as a sexual object” and “woman as an honor”.the last subject under investigation was the recognition of the sources of women's socialization. Based on the data, “family and relatives” and “mass communication media” have formed the main sources of gender socialization of women.ConclusionOne of the distinguishing features of the current research was acknowledging the role of the family and especially the role of mothers in the continuation of gender inequalities through internalization and reproduction of gender roles and stereotypes. Participating women have actually perpetuated and consolidated gender roles and stereotypes by following the example of mothers.In addition, mass communication media along with family represent women in the framework of gender roles and stereotypes.Contrary to studies that have emphasized women's resistance to accepting conventional social identities, the findings of the present study indicate the weakness of gender awareness in kurdistan society.due to the dominance of patriarchal social and cultural structures, weak institutional support and exclusion from the labor market, women are unable to deconstruct gender stereotypes and redefine gender roles.still in kurdistan, a woman is associated with the honor and honor of the family, and women consider family issues as a personal and private matter.in order to understand gender roles and stereotypes as a social problem, it is necessary to sensitize the society and convince the members of the society about the harmful nature of gender socialization and in this way, women should be organized.the structure and system of male ideology is reproduced through gender socialization and has imposed expectations on women that have perpetuated gender discrimination and inequality; Therefore, according to Giddens, an emancipatory politics is necessary for women, and this implies the deconstruction of the patriarchal discourse, the horizontalization of couple relations, and emotional democracy in the context of the family.
Anthropology
narjes roodgar
Abstract
The purpose of this article is to formulate the social dimension of gender based on the rules of transcendental wisdom. The definition of the concept of gender based on Islamic principles is fundamentally incompatible with gender as a construction. On the other hand, gender cannot be reduced only to ...
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The purpose of this article is to formulate the social dimension of gender based on the rules of transcendental wisdom. The definition of the concept of gender based on Islamic principles is fundamentally incompatible with gender as a construction. On the other hand, gender cannot be reduced only to the physical and natural differences of the two sexes and deny its social aspect. The theory of "acquired human" based on the agency of free will in human, using the humanistic capacities of transcendental wisdom, can show the social aspect of gender with a philosophical approach.Based on the principles of transcendental wisdom, rules can be reached that refer to the social dimension of human existence. This is achieved by re-reading Mulla Sadra's texts with the aim of searching for social references in his anthropology. For this purpose, Mulla Sadra's works were included in the relevant keywords to be studied and researched, and the result of this search is to reach propositions, paragraphs, and chapters that can be a source for analyzing the social aspect of man. After this stage with the exploratory method, the findings were analyzed with the analytical method.Mulla Sadra, by proposing the principle of substantial movement in human identity, provided the way to define human identity as an undetermined and changing thing, while being stable. The long-range of this principle is to the extent that it transforms a human being from a last-species type to an average type and considers the acquisitions of each soul as the factor in shaping its latest form. These acquisitions, which are both knowledge and practice, enter the human identity and form the individual's essence. Therefore, the fixed aspect of human identity is only as a basis and foundation for a variable, diverse and different building that is formulated and built by human will, perception, action and behavior. The same equation can be applied to male and female gender identity in such a way that regardless of the aspect of stability of sex, a part of male and female identity, which includes gender, is defined and promoted by individual and social factors. On the other hand, some social elements such as education, which in the view of Mulla Sadra and philosophers, is an essential element for the perfection of the soul and the formation of human identity, shows that the education is necessary in human progress, and the deprivation of education, which the two sexes differ about They are serious, historical and multi-dimensional plays a fundamental role in a person's identity, including his gender identity. The result of the deprivation of education in one gender in historical periods can not only define the identity of women, but it definitely defines women's identity in a different way, which is the target of low and inferior attributes and judgments. Also, the effectiveness of the teaching element in the aspect of the teaching content is also decisive and maybe it is due to the awareness of the influence of education in shaping gender identity that different contents for the education of women and men have been proposed scientifically in the history of science.Also, the theory of acquired human is related to philosophical behaviorism. Mulla Sadra defines actions as natural and unnatural, that most human behaviors are his unnatural behaviors that are formed under the influence of individual or social will. Behavior in the human soul has a reciprocal role in the sense that the knowledge and will of the soul is the cause of the behavior, and then the behavior enters the human identity as a human form, which itself becomes the source of other behaviors or views.In this way, the roles and behaviors of women and men in their lives are both the result of their identity, as well as those are creators of their identity. Therefore, an important part of gender, which is dedicated to the roles and behaviors of women and men, is firstly created by women and men themselves, and secondly, it creates women and men. All that has been said, although it explains the variable and social dimension of the concept of gender under the principles of the theory of acquired human, but Mulla Sadra's theories indicate a kind of valuation of acquisitions, according to higher value systems such as religion and nature, and also define the scope of changes to some extentTherefore, an important part of gender, which is dedicated to the roles and behaviors of women and men, is firstly created by women and men themselves, and secondly, it creates women and men. All that has been said, although it explains the variable and social dimension of the concept of gender under the principles of the theory of acquired human, but Mulla Sadra's theories indicate a kind of valuation of acquisitions, according to higher value systems such as religion and nature, and also define the scope of changes to some extentTherefore, an important part of gender, which is dedicated to the roles and behaviors of women and men, is firstly created by women and men themselves, and secondly, it creates women and men. All that has been said, although it explains the variable and social dimension of the concept of gender under the principles of the theory of acquired human, but Mulla Sadra's theories indicate a kind of valuation of acquisitions, according to higher value systems such as religion and nature, and also define the scope of changes to some extentTherefore, an important part of gender, which is dedicated to the roles and behaviors of women and men, is firstly created by women and men themselves, and secondly, it creates women and men. All that has been said, although it explains the variable and social dimension of the concept of gender under the principles of the theory of acquired human, but Mulla Sadra's theories indicate a kind of valuation of acquisitions, according to higher value systems such as religion and nature, and also define the scope of changes to some extentTherefore, an important part of gender, which is dedicated to the roles and behaviors of women and men, is firstly created by women and men themselves, and secondly, it creates women and men. All that has been said, although it explains the variable and social dimension of the concept of gender under the principles of the theory of acquired human, but Mulla Sadra's theories indicate a kind of valuation of acquisitions, according to higher value systems such as religion and nature, and also define the scope of changes to some extent
Women's Studies
Zahra Sadat Mirhashemi
Abstract
IntroductionThe family is the most sacred institution in terms of the holy law, whose members are under the umbrella of mental and physical security, and the woman is considered the most important member of this institution. In the culture and customs of many societies, women spend all or a large part ...
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IntroductionThe family is the most sacred institution in terms of the holy law, whose members are under the umbrella of mental and physical security, and the woman is considered the most important member of this institution. In the culture and customs of many societies, women spend all or a large part of their time and energy on doing household chores and managing and raising children.Carrying out such activities based on Sharia and law is not part of their duties and assignments, but normally, no salary is set for it. Therefore, there is no direct financial benefit for them from this way, for this reason, in many cases, due to this lack of financial independence and the lack of earning economic income independently, women are in need to meet their smallest financial needs outside the scope of alimony, and in many cases In these cases, no answer is given, or if they do, they face threats from the couple.On the other hand, based on the economic thinking that governs today's world society that values people based on earning more, in the discussed issue, housewives do not have income despite doing household activities, and in some cases even with neglect and lack of income. Appreciation of other family members and society is faced, which causes lack of self-confidence and lack of value and induces the absurdity of activities. This is reflected in some field research. While in our jurisprudence and law, the right to demand wages is considered for doing the work that a woman does at home, so that if this ruling is implemented, the financial independence of the wife will be realized. But unfortunately, in the traditional culture, the demand for wages is not only not implemented, but its demand is not considered acceptable.According to Islamic jurisprudence, a woman's work at home is not a duty, but rather a virtue that if she provides to the family for free, it will be rewarded, and if she wants to receive a wage for it, the law has given her the right to demand; But in traditional culture, women's rights are ignored, and in some cases, demanding it is considered ugly; Therefore, the current research has been carried out with the aim of explaining the effect and relationship of policy making in order to implement the decree of receiving the wages of female housewives with the development of family strength and solving the problems of lack of financial independence and the absurdity of the activities of housewives. With regard to the ruling of the holy Shariah regarding the possibility of demanding exemplary wages, the question arises as to the role of politics in supporting the full implementation of Sharia rulings, especially the issue of exemplary wages, in solving the problems caused by the absurdity of activities and the relative lack of financial independence of housewives and solving What are the consequences? In order to answer the question, it is necessary and necessary to first examine the position of policy making in support of the Shari'a ruling of paying the ideal wage in solving the problems of the absurdity of the activities of housewives and solving the problem of women's lack of financial independence and its consequences.Research method In this research, by using the method of describing and analyzing and collecting materials in a library form, the relationship between the ruling on demand for exemplary wages and the philosophy and policy of Islamic jurisprudence in the implementation of the ruling on exemplary wages in preventing and solving the problems presented is examined and the necessary suggestions are made in order to achieve It will be designed as desired.Research findingsIn Islamic texts, the activity of housekeeping is valuable, and according to Islamic jurisprudence, a woman's work at home is not a woman's duty, but rather a virtue that if she wants to provide for her husband and children for free, it will be rewarded by God, and if she wants, like other economic activities in If he receives a salary in return, the Shariah has given him the right to claim under the name of salary for the days of marriage.Among the women's financial rights in Islam, the implementation of the ruling on women's domestic work provides financial independence for women.In spite of the importance of housekeeping in Islam, unfortunately, housekeeping activities are considered worthless in the traditional culture and despite the right to demand wages from the Sharia, demanding it is considered ugly and indecent.Carrying out housework without pay by housewives has caused problems such as feelings of insignificance and emptiness and fatigue and desire to engage in economic activities outside the home environment and mistrust of their work in the society, and as a result, their mental and physical health is at risk. falls down. Therefore, according to research reports, the rate of depression in housewives is higher than that of working women.conclusionIf housekeeping is valued as it is valued in Islam, the major mental and physical problems of women in housekeeping will be solved.It seems that the philosophy of the ruling on demanding the ideal wage in the Shariah is in accordance with the needs of women and is a reason to prevent the problems of housewives, in addition to this, relative financial independence has been achieved for women and as a result, they feel empty financially and psychologically. and with material and spiritual support from the wife and the government, they act more effectively in the direction of strengthening the family foundation.Housewives turn to economic activities and employment outside the home to fill the gaps caused by the lack of importance and material and spiritual value to housework, which will reduce the fertility rate. While with the full implementation of the policy that the legislator of Islam (Sharia) has taken to include the right to claim the ideal wage, the problems of women's lack of financial independence in the family and the absurdity of the activities of housewives are prevented, and through this way, independence and security Finances will be provided for women and it will increase women's focus on family and raising children.
economics
Mehdi Hajamini; Ameneh Zare; Abolfazl Dehghani; Masoud Nikooghadam
Abstract
IntroductionIn today’s world, the socio-economic positions of women and men have changed; but impacts of masculine ideologies are still observed, especially in underdeveloped and developing countries. There are a lot of discussion about how gender has affected human life. An important question ...
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IntroductionIn today’s world, the socio-economic positions of women and men have changed; but impacts of masculine ideologies are still observed, especially in underdeveloped and developing countries. There are a lot of discussion about how gender has affected human life. An important question is that since most of the politicians throughout history have been men, have the laws and consequently the societies been formed as framework for benefit of men? Are political and economic structures a reproduction of the same patriarchal view? Many believes that the existence of opportunities inequality is historically and institutionally related to the role of governments as a shield that protects the men. Hence women and men have not had the same “opportunity” and “freedom of choice”. In other words, regardless of whether the male perspective shaped the political-economic structures or not, there is a consensus that the opportunity and freedom of choice has been different for men and women. Therefore, it cannot be claimed that what has been institutionalized and experienced as custom and habit throughout history is a natural routine; even if one could be sure or prove that the result of equal opportunity for women would not be different from what it is now.MethodologyFor this reason, the present paper has investigated the role of political structure and power in gender inequalities using more than 2500 observations (94 countries during the period of 1970-2020). For this purpose, political rights and civil liberties indicators as well as Hofstede’s six cultural dimensions have been used. The political freedom index was collected from Freedom House, which has two sub-indices of political rights and civil liberties. Hofstede’s index has six key dimensions including long term orientation (vs. short term orientation), individualism (vs. collectivism), uncertainty avoidance, power distance, masculinity (vs. femininity), and indulgence (vs. restraint). The gender development index is calculated based on the ratio of the human development index of women to men. Therefore, this index reflects the status of women compared to men in the three sub-indices of health, education and per capita income. Another indicator is gender inequality, which shows the status of women in terms of reproductive health (maternal mortality and adolescent fertility), empowerment (parliamentary representation and education attainment) and the labor market (labor force participation). To analyze this large sample of data, two methods of analysis of variance (ANOVA) and Random Forest are used. In this way, it is investigated whether the factor of political freedom played a role in explaining gender inequality or not? In other words, does the difference in the level of political freedom explain the difference in the of gender inequality indices or not?ResultsBased on the analysis of variance, two dimensions of democratic political structure (political rights and civil liberties) have a very important role in gender development and gender inequality of countries. The democratic system is a necessary condition, not a sufficient condition, for achieving fairness in the distribution of economic and social opportunities between women and men. The lowest gender inequality is specific to the countries that were in the best situation in terms of political and cultural factors (Iceland, Belgium, Denmark, Switzerland, Finland and Norway). But India and Bangladesh, which experienced high gender inequality, were not the worst in terms of political rights and civil liberties. Also there were a few countries with low gender inequality and low civil and political freedoms (Belarus, Russia, Venezuela, and Vietnam). Hence, it can be claimed that the highest inequality did not happen in a democratic political system and the lowest inequality were most likely in democratic systems. In addition, the main difference between not-free and partly-free countries with free countries. Then it is not possible to help significantly improve the situation by arbitrary choices or discretion. Policymakers in developing and underdeveloped countries are not faced with a policy trade-off between gender freedom and development, but rather an all-or-nothing choice. The findings of the random forest also confirmed that among the investigated characteristics, emphasis on civil liberties and political rights is essential in order to enjoy a society with limited gender discrimination. Among Hofstede’s cultural dimensions, dimensions such as power distance and indulgence had a more stable role; but uncertainty avoidance was the least important factor among the set of existing factors. However, the results related to the role and importance of cultural dimensions are very fragile and will change depending on the sample or gender index. Therefore, society and policy-makers should not fall into the trap of cultural justification of gender discrimination.ConclusionBased on the results above, reducing gender inequalities and trying to eliminate discrimination according to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights is in line with the political reform in the developing and underdeveloped countries. Policymakers in developing and underdeveloped countries are not faced with a policy trade-off between gender freedom and development, but rather an all-or-nothing choice. In other words, in a not-free political system, a significant improvement in the reduction of gender inequalities cannot be expected, just as in a free political system, a separate activity in the field of women’s fair benefit is not required as a mandate. Striving for a free political system by reducing gender inequality and improving human development are two sides of the same coin. It should be noted that eliminating discrimination and reducing gender inequalities is valuable in itself. Freedom is the most valuable goal after survival, and one of the basic concerns in development is this freedom. In addition, elimination of discrimination is also useful from an instrumental view. Women’s opportunities to use their capabilities outside the family have increased and hence the society benefit from the other half of its talents. Finally, reducing gender inequalities through the political system has a collective function that respects women’s identity because a sense of identity is a source of strength and trust.The alignment of democracy with efforts to eliminate gender discrimination is inevitable. These two issues are two sides of the same coin, and the realization of a free political system will mean the necessary platform for reducing gender inequality and improving human development. Therefore, intellectual activities as well as civil and political efforts are expected to rely on this point of commonality instead of distinguishing and highlighting feminist literature and leftist views. Striving for different dimensions of political freedom will automatically lead to the reduction of discriminations and related policies both in terms of tools, in terms of identity, and in terms of political power and freedom in life decisions.
Political sciences
mahmoudreza rahbarqazi; reza mahmoudoghli
Abstract
The power of online media: the role of strengthening voices and choice in gender equality1. IntroductionThe study of Iran's online media is of significant importance, as these media have a profound impact on the awareness and critical thinking surrounding gender issues. By examining online media, individuals ...
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The power of online media: the role of strengthening voices and choice in gender equality1. IntroductionThe study of Iran's online media is of significant importance, as these media have a profound impact on the awareness and critical thinking surrounding gender issues. By examining online media, individuals can gain a more profound analysis and a wider range of perspectives on gender issues, as well as a deeper understanding of the challenges and opportunities related to gender equality. Moreover, studying online media allows for the identification of emerging trends and developments in the field of gender equality in Iran. By introducing projects and activities related to this field, it is possible to facilitate the promotion of this topic in society. Therefore, the study of online media in Iran is of great importance for a more comprehensive understanding of gender issues, the raising of awareness, and a more nuanced understanding of gender equality. It is therefore essential to give this issue special attention. In this regard, the goals of this research are:1. The objective of this study is to analyze the direct and indirect effects of online media on citizens' attitudes towards gender equality.Specifically, the study will:1. Analyze the direct effects of online media on citizens' attitudes towards gender equality.2. Analyze the indirect effects of online media on citizens' attitudes towards gender equality through the value of the right to choose.3. Analyze the indirect effects of online media on citizens' attitudes towards gender equality through the value of people's voices.2. Theoretical BackgroundA number of consistent theories have been proposed regarding the impact of online media on people's attitudes towards women's rights and, in particular, gender equality. One of the theories regarding the impact of online media on the women's rights movement is the theory of cyber feminism. This theory posits that online media is a potent instrument for amplifying the visibility and participation of women in public spheres. Online activities afford women the opportunity to access information, express their opinions, and communicate with one another, thereby facilitating the development and strengthening of women's rights (Mohanty & Samantaray, 2017). The second theory in this field is the theory of network feminism, which posits that online media facilitate the emergence of novel forms of activism based on women's rights (Fotopoulou & Fotopoulou, 2016). This theory posits that online media platforms and blogs associated with the women's rights movement facilitate communication among supporters across geographic boundaries, thereby accelerating the spread and impact of activism. The third theory in this field is the theory of Feminist consciousness-raising 2.0. This theory posits that online media can be a platform for increasing awareness of women's rights and promoting empowerment in the new digital context (Anderson & Grace, 2015). Modern feminism represents the fourth theory to analyze the influence of online media on people's gender beliefs, values, and attitudes. This theory posits that online media can play an important role in shaping or changing gender beliefs and human motivations. It seems that online media, in addition to direct effects, also affects women's rights indirectly by strengthening the voices of marginalized groups. In this regard, the theory of Intersectionality 2.0 in online media emphasizes the importance of creating diverse and inclusive spaces for the discourse and activism of different social groups (Crooks, 2016). Furthermore, online media can influence the values of gender equality by expanding the right to choose for women. In this context, theorists of network individualism posit that online media can serve as advocates for women's rights by expanding individuals' right to choose through increased access to information, diversity of views, and the empowerment of individual institutions (Rainie & Wellman, 2019).3. MethodologyIn order to test the research theories, the seventh wave of the World Values Survey data (Haerpfer et al., 2022) has been employed. The seventh wave of data for Iran, which was collected between 2017 and 2022, includes 1,499 Iranian citizens. Of these, 74% were urban residents and 26% were rural residents. Additionally, 51% of respondents were male and 49% were female, with an average age of 39.5. Additionally, in order to analyze the information and data, the partial least squares method and SmartPLS software were employed in this research.4. Research FindingsTable 2 presents a summary of the results of the structural part of the research and explains the direct and indirect effects of online media variables. The results indicate that the value of t in all structural relationships is greater than 1.96, thereby demonstrating the significance of these relationships. In other words, the use of online media can directly and significantly increase citizens' desire for gender equality in society. In other words, the findings demonstrate that online media exerts an indirect and significant influence on the desire for gender equality in society, through both the variables of voice and the choice.5. ConclusionAs previously stated, the objective of this research was to assess the direct and indirect impacts of online media on the desire of Iranian citizens for gender equality. In this regard, the research results indicated that online media exerted a direct and significant positive effect on gender equality, leading to an increase in such tendencies among Iranian citizens. In the contemporary era, online media play a pivotal role in the dissemination of information and values within society. Given that the majority of Iranian youth rely on online media for information and content, the influence of these media on citizens' desire for gender equality is considerable. Consequently, online media can at times enhance public awareness and comprehension of this matter by furnishing content that espouses gender equality. For instance, the dissemination of articles, videos, interviews, and reports pertaining to the matter of gender equality can enhance the attention and sensibility of citizens with regard to this issue. Moreover, advertisements and social advertisements that reference the values of gender equality can alter the desires and attitudes of citizens. In light of the fact that online media are regarded as one of the most powerful information and advertising tools, it can be argued that they play an important role in increasing citizens' desire for gender equality. This role is not limited to increasing awareness and attention to gender issues; it can also help to realize gender equality and societal progress by changing cultural and social attitudes.
Women's Studies
chnour enayatzade; Marzieh Mousavi Khameneh; yaghoob Mousavi
Abstract
While women are always part of the construction of urban space, their presence in urban settlements has often become invisible because the private environment of the home is considered a female space due to the gendered division of labor. In this regard, feminist researchers believe that the city is ...
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While women are always part of the construction of urban space, their presence in urban settlements has often become invisible because the private environment of the home is considered a female space due to the gendered division of labor. In this regard, feminist researchers believe that the city is made by men, because women did not play a significant role in its planning, they interfered less in its construction, and they benefit little from being enclosed in an environment made by men. The built environment reflects men's activities, men's values and men's attitude towards living space. Also in the field of urban theory and planning in the 1970s, scholars began to criticize urban planners for creating an urban space that prioritized the needs of men. Since then, they have been looking for alternative approaches to creating urban spaces that meet the needs of men and women equally.Considering that cities affect the lives and experiences of those who occupy cities and often different types of people who use city space every day are exposed to different forces that contribute to the creation of this space (those who own and/or or those who govern the space and those behind the design of the space), so when researching urban space, it is important to consider not only the space itself, but also the people who use it and how they actually use it . Considering that in the last two decades, there has been an increasing amount of research on women's use of public spaces, however, most of them have focused on women's experiences in western contexts, mainly in metropolitan cities, and few studies have focused on the context examined in this research. So the current research focuses on the presence of women in the public arenas of Saqqez city in order to clarify the different dimensions of their experiences of being in the public spaces of the city. In addition, the examination of women's subtle experiences while moving in public spaces and how women use these spaces is targeted in gender, class and socio-spatial hierarchies, and examines the meanings and representations that are embodied in spatial actions and are linked to the urban space.This study tries to answer the main question, "What are women's perceptions, lived experiences, and feelings about urban public spaces?" It also focuses on the following sub-questions:1- What is women's experience and interpretation of urban public spaces and how they access urban spaces?2- How do participants relate to urban public spaces and how do these processes become gendered or classed?3- How do women's experiences of urban public spaces affect their life experiences and their interaction with other spaces?4- What are the tactics and consequences of women's exposure to urban public spaces?phenomenological study that uses Husserli's phenomenology to access the experience of women in the public spaces of Saqqez city. This is because Husserli's phenomenology can be more flexible and the researcher does not need to have deep knowledge of the data under investigation, but can still provide a very clear descriptive description of the lived experience from the perspective of those who experienced the phenomenon. The studied sample does not only include those who are natives of a city, but also includes those who have had past experiences of the researched space. As a result, the population studied in this research included adult women aged 20-40 who lived in Saqqez city and had the experience of being in public spaces.In this study, a phenomenological interview was used to collect data and the interviews were conducted based on the saturation process, so that no new classifications would occur during data collection and no new material would appear about the phenomenon under investigation from one interview to the next. Although the data reached saturation in the 18th interview, the interviews continued until the 20th participant. The data analysis of this research was done with Colaizzi's descriptive phenomenology method, which provides a brief and complete description of the studied phenomenon, which is confirmed by the participants who experienced it.The results of the study in the form of 7 themes; "Public-Private Space Interaction", "Spatial Boundaries", "From Necessity to the Pleasure of Presence", "Spatial Inclusion and Exclusion", "From Presence Stereotypes to Spatial Resistance", "Sense of Place" And "perception of the city and the ideal female model" was presented with 19 thematic categories and a comprehensive description of each of these themes was given. These themes intersect and should be considered together to provide a more comprehensive understanding of participants' experiences of urban public spaces.The data obtained from this study can reflect the role of urban space and influence on daily life experiences and show how important urban space is in our daily life experiences. It includes spatial demarcations, ways of using space, factors of inclusion and exclusion from space, tactics based on gender stereotypes and resistance methods and ideal models presented by women. Therefore, the results of this survey can be of interest to urban designers, architects and those who are responsible for urban policies in creating democratic spaces and laying the foundation for it. In a way that enables women not to experience the feeling of intimidation and otherness, to consider urban spaces as their own and not to feel inequality and exclusion in the use of spaces. Of course, it should be noted that although this data is not necessarily a reflection of the reality, it is still important in the broader considerations of women's experiences in the urban space, and these perceptions are focused on how women access and look at urban spaces and the pressures they feel affected by it.Future research could focus on the experiences of other older, younger women, as well as other gender minorities, and compare their experiences with these women to effectively understand how space shapes the experiences of others. In addition, the reflection on the existing academic literature, together with the discussion of the primary data, clearly shows that the intersection of public and private spaces should always be considered and the interaction of public and private spaces in women's experiences should be considered. Also, the intersection of gender and class in the use of space is recommended in future studies.
Political sciences
hakem ghasemi; Golsoumeh Mohammadrzai
Abstract
Introduction:The income index is insufficient for examining poverty, especially for marginalized groups who have less access to resources. Access to welfare, educational, and health facilities and the inability to participate in formal political activism are considered multidimensional poverty indicators. ...
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Introduction:The income index is insufficient for examining poverty, especially for marginalized groups who have less access to resources. Access to welfare, educational, and health facilities and the inability to participate in formal political activism are considered multidimensional poverty indicators. Women, especially rural women, have less participation in formal political activism, which is influenced by gender stereotypes and multidimensional poverty.Multidimensional poverty, along with institutional and structural shortcomings in political activism for women, particularly in rural and marginalized communities, necessitates informal political activism strategies. Informal political activism takes place in marginalized communities and by marginalized groups based on the realities and necessities of life. Depending on the background and opportunities available, it is sometimes used innovatively by marginalized groups to demand, influence, and change policies.The phenomenon of migration from rural to urban areas is also a consequence of multidimensional poverty and has sometimes exacerbated it in rural areas. This has resulted in changes in the demographic structure of rural areas, aging of the workforce, and seasonal residency in rural areas. Multiplication of women's work and the necessity of independent living, class gaps in rural areas, population growth in rural areas in spring and summer, water tensions, and unequal use of water resources are consequences of migration from rural to urban areas.Deprivation in the surrounding villages of Mashhad has also led to widespread migration to large cities, especially Tehran. Some villages are uninhabited, while others have become devoid of young labor force and have turned into seasonal settlements. The women of Naghdi Aliya village who protested against water problems in Ordibehesht 1400 were in such a social context as water carriers.In addition to the lack of access to water resources due to inadequate storage in the Sefidab Dam and inadequate use by villagers, the lack of proper transfer of water problems through rural institutions such as the Village Council and the Village Headman has led to women's weariness from carrying water and their subsequent protest by closing the road. The filming and broadcasting of the protest on the eve of the elections in opposition media also turned it into a political protest, which was met with a quick response from officials.The aim of this research is to investigate the impact of multidimensional poverty on the limitations of formal political activism for rural women and to drive them towards informal political activism strategies and their consequences through a case study of the protest of Naghdi Aliya village women against drinking water problems in 1400.Quantitative research has been conducted in the field of multidimensional poverty and its relationship with political participation, especially in Iran, but in general, several articles can be mentioned.Hasani Mahoozi (2015) in an article entitled "Gender and Spatial Inequality of Multidimensional Poverty in Iran" examines the frequency, severity, and inequality of poverty among different gender and spatial subgroups in Iranian society and estimates multidimensional poverty in Iran using the statistical approach of Sen's capability. It shows that female-headed households and rural households are severely deprived compared to male-headed and urban households.Ali Akbar Barati et al. (1400) also examined multidimensional poverty at the level of counties, provinces, and the country in an article entitled "Analysis of Multidimensional Poverty in Iranian Rural Communities" using the concept of multidimensional poverty. They showed that multidimensional poverty had the largest share in education, welfare, and health in rural communities in Iran and was influenced by climatic factors as well as economic and social factors.Atena Vatan-Khah and Maryam Ghasemi (1398) also demonstrated the positive and negative effects of young men's migration from villages on remaining women in rural areas in an article entitled "Investigating the Consequences of Men's Migration on the Status of Remaining Women in Rural Areas," with a focus on a case study in Mashhad. They emphasized that migration had a gendered trend and showed the positive and negative effects of young men's migration from villages on remaining women in economic and social areas, concluding that daily migration of men has more positive effects.Research Method:The data collection method was through rural observation, semi-structured individual interviews with 20 women protesting against the water problem, and group interviews with 15 women who continued to protest. The research method was based on institutional ethnography, and institutional texts, including executive guidelines, government news, protest footage, and texts produced in virtual space were also examined. The interview data was analyzed using thematic analysis and an emic approach to understand the internal experience of rural women's lives.Research Findings:The multidimensional poverty in terms of access to safe drinking water, young men's migration from rural areas to cities, seasonal population growth, feminization, and aging of rural settlements, as well as the lack of institutional mechanisms for transferring protests in the lived experience of rural women in Naghdi Aliya, shows that the film of women's protest against the water problem as a textual institution has emerged from the local reality and context of rural women.However, on a larger scale, it has turned into a political issue and has been represented as a conscious political action with group coherence. In this regard, local officials have also understood it as a reservoir against enemies, so that although the water problem in the village was quickly addressed, incomplete and unplanned water supply has still caused the sustainability of the water problem and exacerbated the conflict between the upstream and downstream of the village.Traditional institutional relationships in the village and family also stigmatized women's actions, but women expressed their rights as a matter of religious value by resorting to religious texts and organized themselves. Furthermore, awareness of the power of collective action has deepened and continued in women.Conclusion:Social groups resort to various strategies and methods to express their demands and meet their needs from the power institutions and engage in political activism. If they have access to official and legal channels, they use them for political participation and officially manifest their political activism. Otherwise, in cases where the establishment and utilization of official institutions for participation are not possible, they turn to informal activism. Engaging* in informal activism is mainly protest-oriented and usually accompanied by innovative and creative aspects. These two characteristics challenge the power institutions when facing them. Because being protest-oriented leads to violence, and being innovative makes any action context-dependent and restricts official institutions from using past experiences to confront them. This can lead to the use of inappropriate methods in dealing with informal activism and also push them towards violence. Therefore, it is essential to strengthen official institutions to respond to demands and needs and provide the necessary mechanisms for formal activism for social groups, including women affected by multidimensional poverty, so that social group activism can be directed towards official channels and not turn into a pattern of informal activism. In this way, non-formal activism will be less challenging for governments.
Sociology
hossein daneshmehr; ameer khodakaram alzandi; kurda ahmad mahmood
Abstract
The current research is following the narrative of women activists about the role and position of women in changing the social structure of the Kurdistan region. By describing the structural changes in the social and political context of the Kurdistan region, this article analyzes the factors affecting ...
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The current research is following the narrative of women activists about the role and position of women in changing the social structure of the Kurdistan region. By describing the structural changes in the social and political context of the Kurdistan region, this article analyzes the factors affecting the role and position of women in these changes. Therefore, by using the theories of socialist feminists, especially the theory of mutual reinforcement of capitalism and patriarchy from Hartman and Eisenstein, as well as Sharabi's theories, and his concept of new masculinity, to explain the state of structural changes in the Kurdistan region and the role and position of women. These changes are discussed. This research is in the tradition of qualitative method and narrative analysis and below it, narrative interview have been used. For this purpose, the "semi-structured" interview strategy and targeted and homogeneous sampling have been adopted to interview eighteen people active in the associations. The data were interpreted and analyzed in the form of 11 primary themes and 5 secondary themes. The results showed that changes in the social structure took place after 1991 AD, that is, the time of independence of the Kurdistan region, and as a result, the role and status of women has also changed. From that time until now, political parties have looked at women's issues in the framework of party goals, following women's demands and associations. Despite the dominance of parties and the dominance of patriarchal culture, women have been able to gain their place in this structure by participating and occupying managerial and political positions, and in this, the role of education and media as well as associations are important. And it has been effective. Finally, these factors will enhance the role and status of women, reduce social and cultural harms, and create their role in associations, management and political positions, which has made it possible for them to continue structural changes.The current research is following the narrative of women activists about the role and position of women in changing the social structure of the Kurdistan region. By describing the structural changes in the social and political context of the Kurdistan region, this article analyzes the factors affecting the role and position of women in these changes. Therefore, by using the theories of socialist feminists, especially the theory of mutual reinforcement of capitalism and patriarchy from Hartman and Eisenstein, as well as Sharabi's theories, and his concept of new masculinity, to explain the state of structural changes in the Kurdistan region and the role and position of women. These changes are discussed. This research is in the tradition of qualitative method and narrative analysis and below it, narrative interview have been used. For this purpose, the "semi-structured" interview strategy and targeted and homogeneous sampling have been adopted to interview eighteen people active in the associations. The data were interpreted and analyzed in the form of 11 primary themes and 5 secondary themes. The results showed that changes in the social structure took place after 1991 AD, that is, the time of independence of the Kurdistan region, and as a result, the role and status of women has also changed. From that time until now, political parties have looked at women's issues in the framework of party goals, following women's demands and associations. Despite the dominance of parties and the dominance of patriarchal culture, women have been able to gain their place in this structure by participating and occupying managerial and political positions, and in this, the role of education and media as well as associations are important. And it has been effective. Finally, these factors will enhance the role and status of women, reduce social and cultural harms, and create their role in associations, management and political positions, which has made it possible for them to continue structural changes.The current research is following the narrative of women activists about the role and position of women in changing the social structure of the Kurdistan region. , to explain the state of structural changes in the Kurdistan region and the role and position of women. These changes are discussed. This research is in the tradition of qualitative method and narrative analysis and below it, narrative interview have been used. For this purpose, the "semi-structured" interview strategy and targeted and homogeneous sampling have been adopted to interview eighteen people active in the associations. The data were interpreted and analyzed in the form of 11 primary themes and 5 secondary themes. The results showed that changes in the social structure took place after 1991 AD, that is, the time of independence of the Kurdistan region, and as a result, the role and status of women has also changed. From that time until now, political parties have looked at women's issues in the framework of party goals, following women's demands and associations. Despite the dominance of parties and the dominance of patriarchal culture, women have been able to gain their place in this structure by participating and occupying managerial and political positions, and in this, the role of education and media as well as associations are important. And it has been effective. Finally, these factors will enhance the role and status of women, reduce social and cultural harms, and create their role in associations, management and political positions, which has made it possible for them to continue structural changes.The current research is following the narrative of women activists about the role and position of women in changing the social structure of the Kurdistan region. By describing the structural changes in the social and political context of the Kurdistan region, this article analyzes the factors affecting the role and position of women in these changes. Therefore, by using the theories of socialist feminists, especially the theory of mutual reinforcement of capitalism and patriarchy from Hartman and Eisenstein, as well as Sharabi's theories, and his concept of new masculinity, to explain the state of structural changes in the Kurdistan region and the role and position of women. These changes are discussed. This research is in the tradition of qualitative method and narrative analysis and below it, narrative interview have been used. For this purpose, the "semi-structured" interview strategy and targeted and homogeneous sampling have been adopted to interview eighteen people active in the associations. The data were interpreted and analyzed in the form of 11 primary themes and 5 secondary themes. The results showed that changes in the social structure took place after 1991 AD, that is, the time of independence of the Kurdistan region, and as a result, the role and status of women has also changed. From that time until now, political parties have looked at women's issues in the framework of party goals, following women's demands and associations. Despite the dominance of parties and the dominance of patriarchal culture, women have been able to gain their place in this structure by participating and occupying managerial and political positions, and in this, the role of education and media as well as associations are important. And it has been effective. .
economics
Pedram Mohammad Hassan; Ali Reza Oryoie
Abstract
IntroductionSince the 1980s, researchers have adopted an approach to studying inequality, analyzing how various roots such as gender, socioeconomic class, religion, race, and ethnicity interact and intersect rather than examining them separately. This method of analyzing inequality is called the Intersectionality ...
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IntroductionSince the 1980s, researchers have adopted an approach to studying inequality, analyzing how various roots such as gender, socioeconomic class, religion, race, and ethnicity interact and intersect rather than examining them separately. This method of analyzing inequality is called the Intersectionality Approach. Intersectionality recognizes that individuals hold multiple, intersecting social identities that cannot be examined in isolation. For example, a person is not just a woman or just Black, but a Black woman, whose experiences are shaped by both race and gender simultaneously. The metaphor of the term “intersection” was first used by Kimberlé Crenshaw in 1989, who stated that white women and black women would experience gender inequality differently in society. Understanding black women’s history and social status should enable us to perceive and seek other similar situations in which systems of oppression and discrimination are gathered. Therefore, the Intersectionality Approach emphasizes that the effectiveness of each identity classification (e.g., race, ethnicity, nationality, social class, gender, sexual orientation, religion, etc.) on a person’s life cannot be differentiated from other identity classifications. In other words, all of those identities are interconnected in simultaneous interactions forming a person’s experience of inequality in society. Many intersectionality-based studies have focused more on gender and racial identities among a wide range of identities. Since ethnic identity is more important than racial identity in Iranian society, we will focus on people’s gender and ethnic identities in this study. Therefore, this study investigates the impact of the intersection of gender and ethnicity on income inequality in Iran.MethodologyWe use data from two sources: 1) The Household Expenditure and Income Surveys (HEIS) collected by the Statistical Center of Iran during 2016–2020. The dependent variable is the natural logarithm of an individual’s total gross annual income, and the dependent variables are age, years of education, residence (urban areas or rural areas), marital status, employment status, household income status, ethnicity, gender, and the interaction of gender and ethnicity. 2) The data from the National Survey of the Consumption of Cultural Goods (2019) and Surveying the Country’s Public Culture Indicators (2010) are used to develop the variable of ethnicity. The specific locations of various ethnic groups in Iran and their migration patterns over time are not currently documented. Nevertheless, one's place of residence can serve as an indicator for identifying their ethnicity. In Iran, each ethnicity is defined by its unique language and region of residence, making these along with cultural factors the main distinguishing features of ethnic groups. Nevertheless, the precise borders of ethnic groups do not perfectly match provincial borders, and knowing a person’s region of residence cannot help accurately predict what ethnic group they belong to. Additionally, many of the ethnic groups in Iran account for a low percentage of the total population. Since women are represented by a lower percentage of data than men, we classify the variable of ethnicity under two categories: the Fars category (including the Fars ethnicity) and the non-Fars category (including Azeris, Kurds, Arabs, Baluchs, Lors, Turkmans, Mazanis and Gilaks). In this study, Ordinary least squares (OLS) (which focuses on the relationship at the mean point of the distribution) and quantile regression (which focuses on the relationship at various points of the distribution) are used for statistical analysis through both cross-sections and pooled data. The intersection of gender and ethnicity is then added to the research model to analyze the effect of ethnicity on the gender income gap in Iran while adding gender and ethnicity to the model separately.FindingsOur findings, based on OLS and Quantile Regressions, reveal a persistent gender income gap across all income percentiles and ethnicities, with women consistently earning less than men. Additionally, regardless of ethnicity, the gender income gap is the largest for women in the lowest income percentiles and smallest in the middle percentiles. Furthermore, the interaction term between gender (being female) and ethnicity (being non-Fars) is significant and negative for both low and high-income groups. This suggests that being non-Fars exacerbates the gender income gap for women, regardless of income level. Our results highlight the importance of considering intersectionality when formulating policies. Policies aimed solely at reducing the gender income gap might be ineffective unless they acknowledge the diversity of ethnicities within a society. We observed a statistically significant interaction effect for middle and high-income groups in 2016, 2017, and 2018. This effect, however, became statistically non-significant in 2019 and 2020.ConclusionThe Intersectionality Approach is a framework for identifying and elucidating the complexities that humans experience in their personal and social lives. This approach analyzes the interconnection of various forms of inequality and relevant effects on a person’s life experience. As per the research findings, the gender income gap was observed in all percentiles and all ethnicities. Regardless of ethnicity, the gender income gap is the largest for women in the lowest income percentiles and smallest in the middle percentiles. Furthermore, for both low and high-income groups being non-Fars exacerbates the gender income gap for women. The Intersectionality Approach is an appropriate tool for improving the quality of decisions made by policymakers. Our results highlight the importance of considering intersectionality when formulating policies. Policies aimed solely at reducing the gender income gap might be ineffective unless they acknowledge the diversity of ethnicities within a society. Some intersectionality-based policies are proposed as follows: Strengthen and enforce policies that prohibit discrimination in hiring, promotions, and workplace practices, including specific provisions to protect women of diverse ethnic backgrounds. considering non-Fars women’s special needs and situations while formulating and implementing gender equality policies; investing in economic and educational empowerment plans for non-Fars women; supporting non-Fars women’s entrepreneurship; eradicating the sociocultural obstacles that challenge non-Fars women in the labor market; considering women’s status on different income levels while formulating gender equality policies; providing female-headed households with further social and financial aids; and providing childcare plans for working women in lower income deciles. Making sure that the composition of legislative bodies and political institutions mirrors the diversity found within the population; advocating for policies that cater to the requirements of marginalized groups.
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