Welfare and Planning
Mana Vahid Bafandeh; Melika Vahid Bafandeh; Javad Imani Shamloo
Abstract
Analyzing the relationship between gender and space elucidates the roles and needs of both men and women, particularly in urban spaces. This analysis aids in understanding how the constructive roles of women contribute to the production and reproduction of desirable social relations in urban spaces. ...
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Analyzing the relationship between gender and space elucidates the roles and needs of both men and women, particularly in urban spaces. This analysis aids in understanding how the constructive roles of women contribute to the production and reproduction of desirable social relations in urban spaces. The presence of women in public and urban spaces not only reflects but also narrates the desirable relationships within a society. The primary objective of this research is to identify the dimensions and components that influence the formation of desirable urban spaces for women using the meta-analysis method. The searches were conducted manually, focusing on the keywords "urban spaces, women." For sub-keywords, the terms "park, public space, single-gender spaces" replaced the first keyword. The study period spans from 2016 to 2022 in Persian sources and from 2016 to 2022 in English sources. SPSS software was employed to conduct meta-analysis tests, resulting in the production of forest, bubble, heterogeneity, and funnel (diffusion bias) diagrams. VOSviewer software was used to assess scientific databases for content production in this field. The results indicate that the main dimensions of the research encompass physical and functional dimensions, structural and spatial dimensions, individual and personality dimensions, and cultural and social dimensions in the design of urban spaces. The position of research in the field of urban space design for women holds significance in the global research literature.
Sociology
Mohammad hossein Ghorbani; Abdulazim Jokar; Hamid Reza Safari
Abstract
The purpose of this research was to develop a model for the development of a sport enterprise that would be beneficial to women in the Tehran province. The Grounded Theory (GT) method was employed to conduct this qualitative study. The research population consisted of all elites and specialists in the ...
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The purpose of this research was to develop a model for the development of a sport enterprise that would be beneficial to women in the Tehran province. The Grounded Theory (GT) method was employed to conduct this qualitative study. The research population consisted of all elites and specialists in the field of employment, entrepreneurship and sports businesses, among whom 18 individuals were selected using theoretical and snowball sampling methods. Semi-structured interviews were implemented as part of the data capture tool until theoretical saturation was achieved. In the final model of the research, which was formed based on coding and data analysis, the causal factors (need for self-actualization, clear vision, development of women’s productivity, income generation, appropriateness of sports businesses and achieving standards) shows the need to pay attention to the central phenomenon (self-employment and improvement of the business environment and strategies of self-employment and improvement of the business environment policy and planning, entrepreneurship education, legal support, encouragement of entrepreneurship, promotion of entrepreneurship and development of entrepreneurship ecosystem) in terms of intervening factors (legal-lawful obstacles, inappropriate business, insufficient financial support, insufficient support for entrepreneurship) and existing contexts (cultural limitations, social limitations, individual limitations, insufficient sports participation, talented manpower and capital advantage), which it will lead to consequences (development inevitably, economic development, women’s sports participation, improvement of women’s sports performance and women’s health). The findings of this study can serve as a model for the implementation of measures and programs to advance the careers of women in sports by policymakers, planners, experts, and sports managers.
Sociology
Fatemeh Bazgir; Jamal Mohammadi
Abstract
This qualitative research attempts to study the lived experiences of elderly women living in nursing houses of Khorramabad city in the field of social exclusion. To do this, we have used grounded theory to analyze the causal conditions, intervening conditions and consequences of elderly women’s ...
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This qualitative research attempts to study the lived experiences of elderly women living in nursing houses of Khorramabad city in the field of social exclusion. To do this, we have used grounded theory to analyze the causal conditions, intervening conditions and consequences of elderly women’s lived experiences of social exclusion. The subjects were selected through purposeful sampling from the residents of Haj Seddique and Farzanegan nursing house. The data were gathered by way of deep semi-structured interview. The findings show that the causal conditions of social exclusions are: women’s lack of independent economic status (lack of financial support and loss of ability to work), decline of traditional solidarity in the family (decline of mothers’ authority, generational gap, the growth of individualism) and the transformation of lifestyles (transformation of home’s equipment, semantic change of family labor and the domination of gender bias). These are activated through some intervening conditions such as: extreme pessimism and feeling of loneliness. The first one is characterized by mistrust in society and internal vulnerability; and the second factor can be observed in nostalgia for a golden past and the feeling of being forgotten. It is in this way that they feel that they are dis-embedded from the life-world and thrown into the way of gradual death. So, they represent some symptoms such as silence/ aggressiveness, feeling of rootlessness and self-illness. Or, they believe in extreme fatalism and dying experiences.
Women's Studies
Marzieh Shakeri HosseinAbad; Zahra Nasrollahi
Abstract
Suicide is a public health concern. The family and society are impacted by the consequences of suicide, despite the fact that it is committed by an individual. Therefore, considering the importance of this phenomenon, researchers have endeavored to investigate factors affecting suicide from various the ...
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Suicide is a public health concern. The family and society are impacted by the consequences of suicide, despite the fact that it is committed by an individual. Therefore, considering the importance of this phenomenon, researchers have endeavored to investigate factors affecting suicide from various the economic and social aspects. While previous research has investigated the impact of a variety of variables on suicide, researchers in Iran have neglected to consider the effect of women’s relative position in various fields with the interpretation of gender equality. According to the available literature, this phenomenon can affect suicide. Consequently, the objective of the present study was to examine the factors that contribute to suicide, with an emphasis on the women’s position compared to men in the education and labor market sectors from 2016 to 2022. In the provinces, the results of this research indicate that the ratio of women to men students has a positive and significant impact on suicide. However, the ratio of women’s economic participation to men due to factors such as increased access to resources for the family and reduced financial stress has a negative and significant impact on suicide. The findings indicate the importance of policymakers’ attention to women’s position in various fields, including education and the labor market.
Entrepreneurship
Ehsan Chitsaz; Pedram Adibfar
Abstract
Despite significant progress in promoting gender justice in the workplace, gender dynamics further affect women's career opportunities and advancement. This article highlights coaching strategies to help female clients navigate these dynamics and advance their careers. Drawing on research and best practices, ...
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Despite significant progress in promoting gender justice in the workplace, gender dynamics further affect women's career opportunities and advancement. This article highlights coaching strategies to help female clients navigate these dynamics and advance their careers. Drawing on research and best practices, this article builds on the recognition and understanding of gender differences while avoiding harmful stereotypes. In this research, women identified studies related to the areas of coaching strategies in the workplace by using the methods of review systems and by searching in databases and specifying indicators to get the opinion of the input researches, we analyzed the data using a narrative synthesis. The studies included in this review used different coaching interventions, including one-on-one coaching, group coaching, and mentoring programs. Several studies have focused on the impact of mentoring on gender-based biases, including perceptions of women in leadership positions and the impact of mentoring on men's attitudes toward female leaders. This systematic literature review highlights the effectiveness of coaching in addressing gender-based biases, identifying and overcoming barriers to advancement, and developing effective communication and leadership skills for women in the workplace. In this paper, we conclude that while progress toward gender equity remains a struggle, mentoring can play a critical role in helping women reach their full potential in the workplace.
Sociology
Hossein Daneshmehr; Ameer Khodakaram alzandi; Kurda Ahmad mahmood
Abstract
The current research is based on the narrative of female activists regarding the role and status of women in the transformation of the social structure of the Kurdistan region. The function and position of women in the Kurdistan Region's structural changes have been elucidated through the application ...
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The current research is based on the narrative of female activists regarding the role and status of women in the transformation of the social structure of the Kurdistan region. The function and position of women in the Kurdistan Region's structural changes have been elucidated through the application of Sharabi and socialist feminist theories. Narrative analysis is implemented in this investigation, which adheres to the qualitative methodology. To achieve this objective, the semi-structured interview strategy and targeted and homogeneous sampling were implemented to interview eighteen individuals who are involved in the associations. The data were interpreted and analyzed in the form of 12 primary themes and 6 secondary themes. The results showed that the social structure underwent alteration subsequent to the establishment of the Kurdistan Region in 1991 AD, which consequently altered the role and status of women accordingly. From that time until now, political parties have influenced the demands and associations of women, and they have examined women’s issues within the context of party goals. Nevertheless, women have been able to secure their position within this structure by actively participating and occupying managerial and political positions. The influence of education, media, and associations has been significant. Women's associations, as one of the most significant structural changers and active women themselves as agents of change, have passed equitable laws, eradicated old social and cultural patterns, and raised awareness, support, and representation of women's problems and challenges.
Women's Studies
Mohammad Reihani; Shahram Abdi
Abstract
This study aimed to design a strategic plan for championship women's sports development in North Khorasan province. The present study was applied in terms of descriptive-survey research method in terms of purpose and mixed (quantitative and qualitative) in terms of data collection. The statistical population ...
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This study aimed to design a strategic plan for championship women's sports development in North Khorasan province. The present study was applied in terms of descriptive-survey research method in terms of purpose and mixed (quantitative and qualitative) in terms of data collection. The statistical population in the qualitative and quantitative part included the managers, deputies and experts (general sports and youth department of North Khorasan province, sports and youth department of Bojnord city, sports association of the province and sports clubs of the province) university professors in sport sciences of the province, championship sports coaches and female champion athletes of North Khorasan province. The statistical sample consisted of 14 members in the qualitative section and 23 members in the quantitative section. The sampling method in the qualitative and quantitative sections was purposeful. To collect data, a semi-guided exploratory interview method and a questionnaire were developed to obtain strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats and to prioritize the developed strategies and statistical analysis from a framework called the Model Strategy Development Framework, SWOT-ANP model used. The results showed that the championship sport of the province women has 9 strengths, 16 weaknesses, 11 opportunities and 13 threats and a total of 17 strategies; competitive strategy was dominated strategy in this research.The most important strategy in the development of championship sports for the women of North Khorasan province is developing guidance and support programs for the development of women athletes from beginner to advanced, and it is suggested that the officials and custodians of sports in the province should pay special attention to the strategies obtained from this research.
Islamic Sociology
Mohammad Javad Najafi; Yahya Bouzarinejad
Abstract
The Prophet of Islam elevated the status of women during his governance. Although, with his passing and the rise of the three caliphs, this status declined and deviated from the prophetic path. With the beginning of Imam Ali’s ruling, the situation of women transformed, and they were granted an ...
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The Prophet of Islam elevated the status of women during his governance. Although, with his passing and the rise of the three caliphs, this status declined and deviated from the prophetic path. With the beginning of Imam Ali’s ruling, the situation of women transformed, and they were granted an active role in society. From the outset, Imam Ali sought to revive women’s true status by reforming past innovations. Women welcomed the policies of the Alawi government and supported his efforts, although in some cases, certain women’s actions inflicted serious harm on the state. This study, using library sources and a descriptive-analytical method, aims to investigate the interaction between women and the Alawi government from a historical and political point of view, addressing the question: How did governance and women interact during the caliphate of Imam Ali? The findings revealed that from the beginning of Imam Ali’s rule, women played an influential role in crises, particularly in the imposed wars. The Alawi government supported women and was committed to justice for them, just as it was for men. The Caliph was as accessible to women as he was to men, and they regarded him and the Alawi government as a safe refuge for restoring and enhancing their status. This supportive and dignifying approach fostered positive interaction between women and the Alawi government.
economics
fatemeh karami; Mohammad Ali Asaadi; sadegh khalilian
Abstract
IntroductionIn today's world, women's participation and status are recognized as key indicators in assessing a country's level of development. A review of global trends reveals that the role of women in economic growth, social development, and the achievement of justice has received more attention than ...
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IntroductionIn today's world, women's participation and status are recognized as key indicators in assessing a country's level of development. A review of global trends reveals that the role of women in economic growth, social development, and the achievement of justice has received more attention than ever before. Women's empowerment, particularly in rural areas, not only enhances labor productivity but also plays a crucial role in promoting social justice and accelerating the process of sustainable development. Trade expansion serves as a key driver in empowering rural women and increasing their economic participation. In recent years, many developing countries have adopted trade liberalization policies to create new employment opportunities for women. However, in Iran, most research has focused on the impact of exports on overall employment, while the effects of trade liberalization on rural women's employment have received less attention. This study aims to fill this research gap by examining the impact of trade liberalization on rural women's employment and demonstrating how trade policies can influence the economic participation of this segment of society. Analyzing this issue can lead to the formulation of strategies that not only leverage the opportunities created by trade expansion but also mitigate its potential negative effects on rural women's employment.Methodology The use of the ARDL approach in this research allows for the examination of the effects of trade openness and rural population on the participation rate of rural women over different time periods, providing a more comprehensive understanding of the dynamics of these relationships. Based on the findings of previous studies (Voumik et al., 2023; Nica et al., 2023), the significant variables have been identified and incorporated into the research model. In this regard, the conceptual model of the research is expressed in the following equation:〖lEPW〗_t = f (L〖OP〗_t,〖LG〗_t,〖LPOP〗_t,〖LIN〗_t)In this model, the dependent variable is the economic participation rate of rural women, denoted as (〖lEPW〗_t), while the main independent variable is trade openness (L〖OP〗_t). Additionally, the variables for agricultural sector growth (〖LG〗_t), rural population (〖LPOP〗_t), and inflation (〖LIN〗_t) are also included in the function. The inclusion of these variables in the model is based on economic theoretical foundations, as changes in each of these factors are expected to influence the economic participation of women. This research utilizes time series data from the period 1999 to 2021, which has been collected from reputable sources, including the Statistical Center of Iran, the Central Bank, and the Customs Administration of the Islamic Republic of Iran. For the analyses, Microfit and Eviews software have been employed.Results and Discussion This study examines the stationarity of the research variables using the Augmented Dickey-Fuller unit root test. The results indicate that the rural population variable is stationary, while other variables such as the economic participation rate of women, trade openness, agricultural value added, and inflation rate are stationary at first difference. These differences suggest that the ARDL model is suitable for analyzing both long-term and short-term relationships. The findings indicate that trade openness has a positive and significant impact on the economic participation rate of rural women in the long term. The coefficient for this variable is estimated at 0.27, which is significant at the 90% confidence level. However, it does not have a significant impact in the short term. Additionally, agricultural sector growth positively and significantly affects this rate in both the long and short terms. In contrast, the rural population and inflation rate have a negative impact on the economic participation rate of women in both the short and long terms, although the effect of inflation is not statistically significant. In the short term, some variables have a significant impact on the economic participation rate of women, but trade openness does not show a considerable effect. The error correction coefficient indicates that 39% of the short-term imbalance in the economic participation rate of women is corrected. The results of diagnostic tests confirm the hypothesis of homoscedasticity and no serial correlation in the disturbance terms. Furthermore, the values of the LM and F statistics suggest that the functional form of the model is correctly specified and that the distribution of disturbance terms is normal. The CUSUM and CUSUMSQ tests indicate that the estimated coefficients remain stable throughout the period under investigation, and the model possesses the necessary structural stability.Conclusion and RecommendationsThe findings of the research indicate that, in the long term, an increase in trade openness has a positive and significant impact on the economic participation rate of rural women. This increase in trade can create new job opportunities in agriculture, handicrafts, and export-related services. Furthermore, with the expansion of consumer markets and the growing demand for products made by rural women, their position in economic activities is strengthened. Trade development also facilitates the growth of women's job skills and their entry into competitive markets through investments in infrastructure, technology, and education. Additionally, economic and demographic factors significantly affect the economic participation rate of rural women. The growth of the agricultural sector positively impacts women's employment, highlighting the importance of sustainable agricultural development. Conversely, the rural population negatively affects women's participation, which may be due to competition in the labor market and traditional gender role patterns. Moreover, inflation rates have a negative effect on women's economic participation, although this impact is not statistically significant. In the short term, trade openness does not have a significant effect on women's participation, likely due to the time required for economic and social structures to adapt to trade developments and the need to enhance women's skills and capabilities. Based on the research findings, policymakers can create opportunities for rural women to benefit from trade by implementing supportive measures and structural reforms. These measures include increasing investment in vocational training, establishing financial funds specifically for women entrepreneurs, developing transportation and communication infrastructure, and forming cooperative networks. Additionally, designing trade policies with gender considerations and supporting local supply chains that involve women can help mitigate the negative consequences of global competition. Developing export markets for products produced by rural women and facilitating trade processes are also strategies that can strengthen their economic participation.
Entrepreneurship
Zahra Eskandari; Rasoul Abbasi; Mohammad Reza Fallah
Abstract
IntroductionHome-based businesses not only play a significant role in a country’s gross domestic product but also create a link between domestic space and economic activity. These businesses can be particularly important for women, especially female heads of households in developing countries, ...
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IntroductionHome-based businesses not only play a significant role in a country’s gross domestic product but also create a link between domestic space and economic activity. These businesses can be particularly important for women, especially female heads of households in developing countries, as they serve as a crucial tool for empowerment and economic independence. Female-headed households, due to specific circumstances such as the loss of a spouse, cultural biases, and financial difficulties, have turned to home-based businesses. These businesses can serve as a tool for empowering these women and reducing the poverty of vulnerable households. Women in home-based businesses, especially those who are heads of households, face numerous limitations and challenges. Investigating their experiences in entering the entrepreneurial domain and starting a home-based business can provide valuable guidelines for government officials in smoothing the path and supporting entrepreneurship for this particular group of women. Previous research has addressed the issue of female-headed households and their limitations; however, the lived experiences of female heads of households in starting a home-based business have not been explored. Therefore, given the lack of prior research on the experiences of entrepreneurial female heads of households, this study aims to examine the lived experiences of female heads of households in establishing and managing home-based businesses in Iran.MethodologyThis research employed a qualitative phenomenological approach to explore the lived experiences of female-headed households in establishing and developing home-based businesses. The primary aim was to identify these women's experiences in order to provide valuable information for policymakers and legislators. In this study, 19 semi-structured interviews were conducted with entrepreneurial women who have been running home-based businesses for at least three years. Purposeful sampling was used, and data collection continued until data saturation was reached. The interview questions focused on social, cultural, and gender-related barriers to starting a business, resource acquisition, and challenges in product sales. Data analysis was conducted using Colaizzi’s descriptive phenomenological method. Initially, the data was analyzed through coding and the extraction of key concepts. Then, the meanings were organized into categories to identify core concepts. The reliability of the analysis was assessed through inter-coder reliability, with a 92% agreement rate between two coders. Moreover, the validity of the results was confirmed through participant feedback. Overall, this research addresses the challenges and factors influencing the success of home-based businesses run by female-headed households and provides an appropriate tool for better understanding this phenomenon.FindingsThe findings indicate that participants’ experiences can be classified into three main categories: prerequisites for home-based businesses, proficiency in sales management, and challenges faced by female-headed households. A. Prerequisites for home-based businessesFemale heads of households cited several reasons for choosing home-based businesses, including spousal loss, financial responsibilities, and cultural restrictions discouraging women from working outside the home. Additional considerations such as preserving personal dignity, overcoming societal stigmas, and balancing professional and familial responsibilities also influenced their decisions. Unique circumstances such as previous legal issues, imprisonment, or limited education further motivated them toward entrepreneurship. These women acquired the necessary skills through various avenues, including family mentorship, expert training, vocational programs, and self-guided learning via online platforms. Charitable organizations and hands-on experience also contributed to their skill development. Additionally, technology adoption—such as using YouTube for education, social media for marketing, and design software for innovation—enhanced their business success.B. Proficiency in sales managementEntrepreneurial women employed diverse strategies to market and sell their products, including word-of-mouth referrals, social media advertising, and traditional print promotions. Initially, their sales were limited to acquaintances, but over time, they expanded their customer base to include strangers and institutional buyers. Many leveraged online sales platforms and participated in local events and markets to boost their visibility. Some adopted intermediary-based sales strategies or established direct contracts with institutions such as schools and production workshops, allowing them to increase market reach and achieve financial stability.C. Challenges faced by female-headed householdsDespite their determination, female heads of households face substantial individual and environmental challenges. Personal difficulties include limited knowledge of digital technologies, the lack of permanent product display spaces, and physically demanding work with low financial returns. Early-stage losses, low customer engagement, and isolation also hinder progress. Moreover, securing loans remains difficult due to the absence of guarantors and inadequate legal and marketing knowledge. At an environmental level, bureaucratic loan approval processes, competition with cheap imports, shortages of raw materials, and the lack of insurance or trade unions significantly obstruct business growth. Gender-based discrimination, including skepticism regarding women’s capabilities and demands for financial guarantees, further complicates their entrepreneurial journey. Nevertheless, these women demonstrate resilience and creativity, utilizing their resourcefulness to navigate obstacles and progress in their businesses.ConclusionHome-based businesses not only create job opportunities for female-headed households but also play a crucial role in reducing poverty and improving the quality of life for vulnerable families. This study highlights the transformative potential of such businesses in enabling women to achieve financial independence while fulfilling their familial responsibilities. Despite the positive outcomes, significant barriers persist. Gender biases and cultural prejudices remain major impediments, emphasizing the need for systemic changes in societal attitudes and structural frameworks. To ensure the growth and sustainability of home-based businesses, institutional and governmental support is imperative. This includes providing low-interest or collateral-free loans, offering vocational training, and establishing robust support systems such as unions and insurance schemes. Policy measures should also focus on addressing cultural norms and creating awareness to foster an inclusive environment that empowers women. Furthermore, practical steps such as organizing regular markets, enabling access to technology, and providing financial incentives are essential to help these entrepreneurs thrive. In conclusion, home-based businesses represent a viable solution for alleviating poverty, promoting economic empowerment, and challenging traditional gender roles in society. Strategic planning and targeted policy interventions can not only improve the living conditions of female-headed households but also contribute to the broader goals of sustainable economic and social development. This study offers valuable insights and a foundation for future research on the role of social capital, technology, and institutional support in enhancing the outcomes of home-based businesses. To address the limitations of this study, it is recommended that future research include broader and more diverse samples from various cultural backgrounds. Additionally, to enhance the reliability of the data, it is suggested that the findings of this study be tested quantitatively on a larger statistical population.
Women's Studies
bahar atashkar; Ehsan Aqababaee; hamidreza shairi; Taghi Azadarmaki
Abstract
Extended AbstractIntroductionNewspapers, as pivotal instruments of discourse, played a key role in shaping and representing ideological values, as well as in transmitting sociopolitical messages. The representation of women in newspapers not only reflects social and cultural transformations but also ...
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Extended AbstractIntroductionNewspapers, as pivotal instruments of discourse, played a key role in shaping and representing ideological values, as well as in transmitting sociopolitical messages. The representation of women in newspapers not only reflects social and cultural transformations but also serves as a mirror to the structures of power, cultural norms, and prevailing discourses. In this regard, the central inquiry of the present study focused on how women were portrayed in newspapers during the 1980s. It also sought to explore the messages conveyed by these representations regarding women’s roles and sociopolitical status. Therefore, this study, drawing on Foucault’s discourse theory and the social semiotic framework of Kress and Van Leeuwen, examines the representation of women in the 1980s Iranian newspapers, focusing on their social, political, and familial roles, in order to uncover the discursive messages embedded within these images. Many studies have investigated the representation of women in the media, employing both Foucault’s discourse theory and social semiotics as analytical frameworks. Their results suggest that the media can play a major role in the reproduction of gender norms, with images serving as instruments of social control. This study focuses on the 1980s newspapers, with particular attention to the influence of revolutionary and Islamic ideologies on the representation of women, and presents a novel approach to the analysis of visual representations.MethodologyThis qualitative research was grounded in the social semiotic framework of Kress and Van Leeuwen, analyzing the images through three distinct dimensions: representational, interactive, and compositional.. The research sample included 431 images of women published in the front pages of widely circulated Persian-language newspapers during the 1980s in Iran. From this collection, 15 images were purposefully selected for a detailed analysis. The inclusion criteria were based on the presence of women in the images, their alignment with dominant discourses, and the representation of their social, familial, and political roles within the sociopolitical context of the 1980s. Images deemed irrelevant, e.g., those featuring non-Iranian women or those portraying women in a full-face view without additional contexts, were excluded from the analysis. At the representational level, the study focused on how individuals and their roles were portrayed. At the interactive level, the analysis examined the relationship between the audience and the images, considering different factors such as viewpoint, distance, and gaze. At the compositional level, the research explored the visual arrangement of the images and the discursive messages they conveyed. Foucault`s discourse theory was employed for the discourse analysis, facilitating a deeper understanding of the discursive and ideological dynamics at play. To enhance the validity of the research, feedback was sought from scholars specializing in linguistics, women’s studies, and sociology.Findings At the representational level, women were depicted as active participants in social, political, and revolutionary spheres, engaging in protests, revolutionary rallies, and elections, supporting efforts on the front lines during the Iran–Iraq war, and providing aid during natural disasters. These images highlighted women’s participation in sociopolitical transformations, their role in resistance, and the construction of a revolutionary female identity. At the interactive level, the analyzed images established a dynamic interaction between the audience and the depicted subjects. The social distance depicted in the collective images, especially those representing protests, accentuated the sense of mass mobilization and active participation of the population. In terms of spatial distance, long-shot images primarily conveyed a sense of observation, employed to depict collective events. In contrast, close-up images fostered a sense of intimacy and empathy. The use of an indirect gaze in the documentary images emphasized the focus on the activity and event, rather than establishing a direct connection with the audience. However, certain images where the subjects gazed directly at the audience aligned the viewer with the discourse message, invited engagement, and fostered a sense of empathy with the women depicted. Images in which the subject’s gaze directly engaged with the audience fostered a greater sense of interaction. Such images were predominantly employed to represent specific themes such as the supportive role of women during the Iran–Iraq war and the Islamic Revolution. The visual compositions and their ideological messages were intentionally structured to convey specific ideological messages. Images depicting women in social and occupational roles were typically paired with dynamic and intricate compositions, whereas the representations of women in familial and traditional roles were presented with more simplistic compositions. The portrayal of women adhering to the Islamic dress code, along with their familial and revolutionary activities, underscored the reinforcement of Islamic and revolutionary discourses, as well as religious values. The composition of the images, characterized by simplicity and the strategic use of visual elements such as open social spaces, dividing lines, the Islamic hijab, and specific lighting accentuated ideological messages that supported Islamic and revolutionary discourses. The representation of women in the 1980s Iran was shaped by three predominant discourses: the revolutionary discourse, which highlighted the revolutionary identity of women through their participation in the Iran–Iraq war and support for the revolution; the religious discourse, which emphasized the familial and maternal roles of women within the framework of Islamic teachings; and the traditional discourse, which emphasized family-oriented values, traditional roles, and the social constraints placed on women.Conclusion The depiction of women in the front pages of newspapers during the 1980s reflects the sociocultural regulation and ideological dominance of prevailing discourses concerning women’s roles and identities. The newspapers of that period, despite the meticulous regulation of visual content and the deliberate exclusion of imagery inconsistent with prevailing discourses, actively constructed women’s roles and identities within the ideological framework of revolutionary and religious values. Women were conceptualized as the emblematic figures of resistance, embodying familial and Islamic values. These depictions were confined within the ideological boundaries of revolutionary, religious, and traditional paradigms. Visual semiotics, e.g., adherence to Islamic dress codes, simplistic compositional elements, and representations of familial roles, functioned as mediums for articulating the Revolutionary- Islamic identity of women. At the representational level, women were predominantly depicted within the confines of traditional or revolutionary roles. At the interactive level, the images sought to foster a sense of empathy and establish an emotional rapport with the audience. However, at the compositional level, visual semiotic elements and structures were strategically employed to articulate and transmit discursive messages. Moreover, the visual composition of the images was structured in a manner that constrained women’s roles within specific social and cultural frameworks. The findings of this study align with those of prior research, demonstrating that the media can play a pivotal role in the reproduction of gender norms and the perpetuation of hegemonic discourses. This study drew upon Foucault’s discourse theory alongside the social semiotic framework, presenting a novel methodological approach to analyzing the representation of women in Iranian media. The application of Foucault`s discourse theory coupled with the social semiotic approach of Kress and Van Leeuwen facilitated an in-depth analysis of power dynamics and the representation of women within the context of prevailing discourses. To attain a more nuanced understanding of the representation of women in the media, future studies should adopt a comparative approach, facilitating a deeper exploration of the influence of diverse discourses on women’s roles and identities and identifying both analogous and divergent models.
Sociology
fatemeh danafar; Feze Abolhasani; Nilofar shojaei
Abstract
IntroductionThe increasing incarceration of women across the globe has prompted a significant shift in how criminologists, sociologists, and policymakers conceptualize female criminality. Although women comprise less than 15% of the incarcerated population worldwide, the number of female prisoners has ...
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IntroductionThe increasing incarceration of women across the globe has prompted a significant shift in how criminologists, sociologists, and policymakers conceptualize female criminality. Although women comprise less than 15% of the incarcerated population worldwide, the number of female prisoners has increased disproportionately compared to men—rising by more than 50% since the year 2000. This phenomenon is particularly alarming in contexts where traditional gender norms and familial expectations dominate, and where women’s deviation from prescribed social roles is met with intensified social sanctions. Imprisonment, for women, often entails more than legal punishment—it entails moral condemnation, social ostracism, identity erosion, and the disruption of key roles such as motherhood and caregiving.This study focuses on the lived experiences of incarcerated women in Yazd, a culturally conservative city in central Iran. In such settings, women’s imprisonment is not merely a legal issue but a profound violation of social expectations, leading to deeper forms of stigma and exclusion. The study aims to explore, through a grounded theory approach, the processes through which these women enter into crime, the structural and emotional forces that perpetuate their criminal behavior, and the strategies they adopt to survive and make sense of their experiences. By doing so, the study attempts to bridge the gap between theory and the actual voices of women affected by incarceration.MethodologyThe research employed a qualitative method based on the systematic grounded theory framework proposed by Strauss and Corbin. The study was conducted in the female ward of the central prison in Yazd. Twenty-one women inmates were selected based on purposive and theoretical sampling, ensuring diversity in age (ranging from 19 to 65), educational background, marital status, number of children, and the type of crime committed (mostly drug-related offenses, document forgery, and financial fraud).Data collection was carried out using semi-structured and in-depth interviews, conducted within the prison premises. Due to security regulations, audio recordings were not allowed. Instead, the researcher transcribed interviews in real-time and later expanded them into full texts. The interview questions were open-ended and designed to elicit deep reflection on life before and after incarceration, the causes of crime, emotional and social consequences, and personal coping mechanisms.Data analysis followed the three-step coding process typical of grounded theory:Open coding – breaking down raw data into discrete concepts and categories;Axial coding – identifying relationships among categories and subcategories;Selective coding – developing a core category that integrates all themes.To ensure trustworthiness, three validation techniques were used: (1) participant validation through feedback on interview summaries; (2) comparison of emerging codes with raw transcripts to verify consistency; and (3) peer review of coding with a research colleague to ensure intercoder reliability.The research followed strict ethical protocols: informed consent was obtained from all participants; anonymity was maintained through pseudonyms; and the right to withdraw at any time was guaranteed. The interviews were held in a private space within the prison, and special care was taken to create a respectful, nonjudgmental environment.FindingsThe central phenomenon that emerged from the analysis was the concept of “living in the cycle of structural deviance.” This refers to a recurrent pattern of exclusion, marginalization, and criminalization that the women experienced both before and after incarceration. Their narratives revealed a complex interaction of causal, contextual, and intervening factors:Causal factors included exposure to deviant subcultures, growing up in criminalized families, and experiencing emotional crises such as domestic violence, childhood neglect, or betrayal by partners. Many of the women had limited or no control over their life choices, often coerced or manipulated into illegal activities by male relatives or partners.Contextual factors revolved around emotional vulnerability, impulsive decisions, and lack of skills or education. Women frequently reported committing crimes such as drug transportation or taking legal blame to protect a loved one—acts rooted in emotional entanglement rather than criminal intent.Intervening conditions included economic hardship, social stigma, gender-based educational deprivation, and cultural restrictions. These factors collectively reinforced women's exclusion from legal economic opportunities, pushing them toward survival-based illegality.The consequences of these experiences were articulated in three key categories:Defensive isolation – a conscious decision to retreat from social interactions to avoid humiliation, gossip, and stigma.Psychological erosion – chronic mental health problems including depression, anxiety, hopelessness, and self-harm tendencies.Suspended identity – the feeling of being stuck between one's past self and a socially rejected label as an “ex-convict.” Many women concealed their imprisonment even from family members.In response, the women employed a set of survival strategies that helped them cope:Identity reconstruction: seeking to redefine themselves through behavioral change, community engagement, or reframing of personal narratives.Spiritual renewal: engaging in religious rituals, prayer, and trust in divine justice as a source of psychological stability.Emotional purification: using crying, storytelling, and expressions of pain to release internal tensions, often in group or therapeutic settings within the prison.This culminated in a paradigmatic model illustrating how structural deviance is produced and reproduced in the lives of marginalized women. The model shows that crime is not a simple individual act but a consequence of multiple layers of disadvantage and trauma, compounded by punitive social reactions.ConclusionThis research highlights that female criminality, particularly in conservative contexts like Yazd, is best understood as a socially constructed outcome of structural inequality, emotional deprivation, and systemic exclusion. The findings align with established theories:Hirschi’s Social Bond Theory explains the weak attachment of these women to conventional social institutions like school or family.Cloward and Ohlin’s Differential Opportunity Theory shows how lack of access to legitimate means of advancement pushes individuals toward illegitimate alternatives.Goffman’s Stigma Theory helps explain how being labeled a criminal reinforces exclusion and inhibits reentry into normal social life.This study complements global literature that portrays incarcerated women not primarily as criminals, but as victims of intersecting vulnerabilities: poverty, gender oppression, broken families, and systemic neglect. Consistent with studies by Bright et al. (2023), Bucerius & Sandberg (2022), Parry (2021), and Gueta & Chen (2016), the participants' experiences reflect how crime becomes an almost inevitable route for survival when no other options exist.To address these issues, the study recommends:Creating holistic rehabilitation programs focused on trauma recovery, parenting, vocational skills, and emotional health;Promoting community-based alternatives to incarceration for non-violent female offenders;Supporting post-release reentry services including housing, job placement, and legal aid;Implementing anti-stigma public education campaigns to enable social reintegration;Reforming sentencing laws to incorporate restorative justice principles and gender sensitivity.Ultimately, the lived experiences of incarcerated women in Yazd point toward a broader need for structural transformation in how societies respond to female deviance. Instead of punitive exclusion, the focus must shift to restorative inclusion, enabling these women to rebuild their lives with dignity and autonomy.
